Art Criticism and Art History Essay

The origins of the practice of assemblage can be traced back to its early twentieth century roots based on ideas presented by Dadaists. The Dada movement was a literary and artistic movement during the First World War and further developed as a non-art movement. The main idea of Dada was to not follow a uniform rule of what an artwork entails in order to be valued. This movement was significant in the development and history of art as it challenged society with new ideas therefore provoking change in our perspective of what can be classified as aesthetically pleasing and all the possibilities of what art is. Also, the emergence of Dadaism occurred when the world was in an affluent, strong, materialistic and consumer oriented mindset and was created out of the frustration and pain felt by young artists provoked by a revolt against the horrors of war. By their governments allowing such barbarism to take place, they then adapted beliefs in opposite to those implemented onto them: For example, in a time where impressionism was celebrated as influenced by realism, romanticism, baroque and renaissance movements, Dadaists disregarded past influences and made their own art from whatever was considered non-artistic. The Dadaists stood for anything that wasn’t classified as art due to criticism of this war and created non art by using Shock Art to capture the attention of viewers at the time. The Dadaists would use vulgar words, scatological humour, visual puns and found objects to create non artistic pieces. This generated reactions of offence and shock by society at the time and therefore achieved its purpose, which was to provoke an emotional reaction from an audience. A clear example of this is represented in Marcel Duchamp’s ‘L. H. O. O. Q’ where the artist has painted moustache on a copy of the Mona Lisa. This became one of the most well known acts of degrading a famous artwork as Duchamp’s postmodern viewpoint challenged what the image originally had to offer and changed its meaning completely. This ‘degrading’ of the Mona Lisa achieved another level of offence through the title of the image being a pun, which, when translated in French, the letters’ pronunciation says â€Å"She has a hot ass† whilst being displayed as post-card size rather than being large and therefore admired as Da Vinci’s masterpiece was as well as many influential artworks of the past. The subjective viewpoint of this artwork is to provoke an emotive response from viewers and is a form of satire against the ‘Mona Lisa†. The Dada movement was a revolt against the â€Å"high cultural† content of the visual arts of the time. To truly act against high content of artwork, the Dadaists elevated ordinary objects into the outlook of the ‘aesthetic’ by forcing viewers to observe everyday objects in new frameworks. Assemblage in the Dada movement varied widely as there was no predominant medium of use in any of these artworks and left the construction of the work to the imagination of the creator rather than implying that only a painting suiting the era is considered art. The Dada movement self destructed when it was in danger of becoming an acceptable art practice in society. Due to use of assemblage, ready made objects and montage of all sorts, these techniques of art gained acceptance from Dadaism and became popular within the upcoming years of the movement. Dada was influential in the creation of surrealism as these works are not only an attempt to express the mechanism of the mysterious subconscious but are also characterized by fantastic imagery and bizarre juxtaposition of subject matter trying to be represented in this form. Another representation of Dada is Marcel Duchamp’s exhibition of a urinal (left) as his sculpture aiming to persuade audiences to view the urinal as a work of art and called it a â€Å"readymade†. Due to Duchamp’s Dada contributions and challenging of the social order of the art world, he is now seen as the originator of conceptual art. Duchamp’s works are both seen as postmodern as they use postmodern conventions such as appropriation and parody (as seen in L. H. O. O. Q) and recontextualisation in ‘Fountain’ (above). The re-emergence of the found object in pop art was significant in the development of the history of art as it reinforced previous ideas presented by the Dada artists of aesthetics and of what society will accept as an artistic work. The re-emergence of the found object in pop art looked at artworks using contemporary theories and knowledge that were established in the 1980s to challenge traditional and modernist ideas, which was exactly the aim of the Dadaists. It is due to the challenging of contemporary perceptions of art in which the found object would be considered a postmodern practice in its time. Found art (also known as Ready-mades) is a description of art created by modified and undisguised objects that are not considered art for the main reason of their non-art function. The art created by these found objects convey meaning through their context, assemblage/composition and by the artists intention and approaches taken to montage pieces together. The use of assemblage and the found object in Pop Art practice became an artistic trend and is exemplified by Robert Rauschenberg where he combines installations with the assemblage of large physical objects and commercial photography to form ‘Combine’ in 1963. Rauschenberg merges various non-traditional materials and objects into innovative combinations and through this process, has combined contemporary art with the found objects. This demonstrates Rauschebergs’ movement from abstract expressionism to pop art. Raschenburg’s process of art making involved entailed walking around a block of area in his studio and collecting junk and rubbish, as demonstrated in â€Å"Combine†. This artmaking practice was seen as a further development of Dada’s use if rubbish and readymades. Raschenburg is now considered to be a neo-Dadaist due to these unconvential traditions. His works such as â€Å"Combine† are subjective as they are personal works expressing thought and imagination. Claes Oldenburg’s â€Å"Giant Hamburger† is another example of the found object’s re-emergence in pop art as it reflects his concerns of making art materials from products of the commercial world and succeeds in showing the everyday complexity of 1960’s American culture, being that of fast food. â€Å"Giant Hamburger† is unconventional in its subject matter and materials as it simply displays a massively oversized American icon at 132 cm high and 213 cm wide. The use of imitating a symbol of American culture enhances the impact of this work and the soft texture of the sculpture also challenges the idea that a sculpture’s form must be solid and hard. This artwork is cultural as it highlights a the American culture that has become fast food and is subjective as Oldenburg sums up his ideas of fast food in hope of provoking a response from audiences, therefore creating a link between the artist and the artwork. Richard Hamilton also represents the re-emergence of the found object in Pop art as he became known for â€Å"Just What Is It that Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? † in 1956. This collage consists of various images found from American magazines all within a household environment. The staircase is taken from a model advertisement for a vacuum cleaner and the woman posing is believed to be Jo Baer who had posed for burlesque magazines in her youth. The rug is a blown up photograph once used as a magazine feature and the figure of the Earth cuts into the top of the picture. Features of Pop Art are present in this image through the use of bright colours and collage is used in Hamilton’s artmaking adding a unique and distinguishable factor to his work. The objects that are displayed are also significant and can be related to Hamilton, therefore making the artwork subjective as well as postmodern. These articles and cutouts from around the room are from Hamilton’s collection over time from texts he found to be interesting. Through expression of Hamilton’s experiences, the audience is able to reflect on the artists’ imaginative qualities produced by the above artwork. The conceptual framework is visible in this image as the artists’ ideas are tied in with the world (being current affairs as shown by the media/articles/magazines) to form an artwork for a broad audience. The cultural frame is also portrayed in â€Å"Just What Is It that Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? † Through ideological aspects in society such as the medias influence as represented by magazines, celebrities and newspapers. This artwork is therefore significant as it acts as a zeitgeist reflecting the culture of the time when pop art was emerging. This allows audiences to understand the artist’s world at the time and the audience he was presenting to as well as his influences. The earth cutting into the top of the artwork may represent advances in knowledge regarding evolution of Earth that may have influenced Hamilton.

Management Study Guide Essay

Commanding Heights: Episode 3 (Chapters 11-14); available at online at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/story/index.html – With communism discredited, more and more nations harness their fortunes to the global free-market. China, Southeast Asia, India, Eastern Europe and Latin America all compete to attract the developed world’s investment capital, and tariff barriers fall. In the United States Republican and Democratic administrations both embrace unfettered globalization over the objections of organized labor. But as new technology and ideas drive profound economic change, unforeseen events unfold. A Mexican economic meltdown sends the Clinton administration scrambling. Internet-linked financial markets, unrestricted capital flows, and floating currencies drive levels of speculative investment that dwarf trade in actual goods and services. Fueled by electronic capital and a global workforce ready to adapt, entrepreneurs create multinational corporations wi th valuations greater than entire national economies. When huge pension funds go hunting higher returns in emerging markets, enterprise flourishes where poverty once ruled, but risk grows, too. In Thailand the huge reservoir of available capital proves first a blessing, then a curse. Soon all Asia is engulfed in an economic crisis, and financial contagion spreads throughout the world, until Wall Street itself is threatened. A single global market is now the central economic reality. As the force of its effects is felt, popular unease grows. Is the system just too complex to be controlled, or is it an insiders’ game played at outsiders’ expense? New centers of opposition to globalization form and the debate turns violent over who will rewrite the rules. Yet prosperity continues to spread with the expansion of trade, even as the gulf widens further between rich and poor. Imbalances too dangerous for the system to ignore now drive its stakeholders to devise new means to include the dispossessed lest, once again, terrorism and war destroy the stability of a deeply interconnected world. The Bush Bailout Plan (Rounds 1 and 2) Round 1: Allow the Treasury to borrow up to $700 billion to buy mortgage-related assets from US financial institutions over the next 2 years. –May stabilize the capital markets ( could protect investment and retirement funds) – MAY stabilize housing prices. Consequences of doing nothing: -Small businesses will fail. -Companies may not be able to make payroll -People, even those with good credit records, may not be able to get credit for mortgages, car loans, student loans, or credit cards. -People will lose jobs. Round 2: Same deal: with same possible benefits. House version of the bill: $350 billion upfront; $350 billion later unless congress holds it back. -NO new golden parachutes if the institution sells more than $300 million in assets -Must try to â€Å"claw back† past bonuses if based on misleading financial statements -No golden parachutes when the treasury has ownership stake in the firm (.ie., it is failing). Defined Contribution Retirement Plans – A defined contribution plan provides an individual account for each participant. The benefits are based on the amount contributed into the plan and are also affected by income, expenses, gains and loses. There are no promises of a set monthly benefit at retirement. Some examples of defined contribution plans include 401(k) plans, 403(b) plans, employee stock ownership plans and profit sharing plans. Contagion – The tendency to spread, as of a doctrine, influence, or emotional state. When one nation’s economy is negatively affected because of changes in the asset PRICES of another country’s financial market Foreign Direct Investment – Is when a firm invests resources in facilities to produce and/or market a product in a foreign country. Horizontal FDI versus Vertical FDI – Horizontal FDI: investment in the same industry in which a firm operates at home. Vertical FDI: investment in an industry that provides inputs for a firm’s domestic operations or that sells the outputs of the firm’s domestic operations. Backward Vertical FDI versus Forward Vertical FDI- Backward vertical FDI: an investment in an industry abroad that provides inputs for a firm’s domestic production processes. Forward Vertical FDI: an investment in an industry abroad that sells the outputs of a firm’s domestic production processes. BACKWARD vertical means that there are more places to help build the product. Stock versus Flow of FDI – Stock flow is the total accumulated value. Flow of FDI is the value over time. Gross Fixed Capital Formation – GFCF is a flow value. It is usually defined as the total value of additions to fixed assets by resident producer enterprises, less disposals of fixed assets during the quarter or year, plus additions to the value of non-produced assets (such as discoveries of mineral deposits, or land improvements). Greenfield Investment – Establishing a new operation Acquisition – When one firm buys an interest in another firm Merger – When two firms agree to integrate their operations on a relatively co-equal basis. Exporting – The sale of products produced in one country to residents of another country Licensing – when one firm (the licensor) grants the right to produce its product, use its production processes, or use its brand name or trademark to another firm (the licensee) Tacit versus Codified Knowledge – Tacit knowledge: information that is intuitive and difficult to articulate or codify in writing. (Can be gained through personal experience or interaction. Shared knowledge might be dispersed throughout the company.) Theoretical Explanations for FDI: Transportation Costs, Market Imperfections, Strategic Behavior, Product Life Cycle, and Location-Specific Advantages – Impediments to the Sale of Know-How – Impediments to the sale of know-how explain why firms prefer horizontal FDI to licensing. These impediments arise when: (a) a firm has valuable know-how that cannot be adequately protected by a licensing contract, (b) a firm needs tight control over a foreign entity to maximize its market share and earnings in that country, and (c) a firm’s skills and know-how are not amenable to licensing. Multi-Point Competition – Arises when two or more enterprises encounter each other in different regional markets, national markets, or industries. The Radical, Free Market and Pragmatic Nationalism Views of FDI Benefits and Costs of FDI for a Host Country – Resource transfer effects, employment effects, balance of payments effects, effect on competition and economic growth. Host country benefits from initial capital inflow when MNC establishes business—FINANCIAL CREDIT Host country benefits if FDI substitutes for imports of goods and services—CURRENT ACCOUNTCREDIT Host country benefits when MNC uses its foreign subsidiary to export to other countries—Credit on CURRENT ACCOUNT Resource-Transfer Effects: Capital, Technology and Management Employment Effects: Direct, Indirect, Substitution, and Acquisition Restructuring – -Mergers and acquisitions are quicker to execute. -Foreign firms have valuable strategic assets that would be risky and time consuming to develop. -Acquiring firm believes it can use its core competencies to increase the efficiency of the acquired firm. Balance-of-Payments Effects of FDI for the Home and Host Countries – Home country – The balance of payments account is improved by the inward flow of repatriated earnings. The balance of payments account is improved if the foreign subsidiary needs home country equipment, component parts, etc. National Sovereignty – Sovereignty is the exclusive right to control a government, a country, a people, or oneself. A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority. Benefits and Costs of FDI for a Home Country – Balance of payments effects, employment effects. Home Country Policies to Encourage and Restrict Outward FDI – Restrict: Limits on capital outflows, tax incentives to invest at home, Nation-specific prohibitions Encourage: Foreign Risk Insurance, Capital Assistance, Tax Incentives to Invest Abroad, Political Pressure. Host Country Policies to Encourage and Restrict Inward FDI – Restrict: Ownership Restraints Encourage: To gain from the resource-transfer and employment effects of FDI, to capture FDI away from other potential host locations. Performance Requirements – An expectation placed on a foreign direct thingy requiring them to do certain things like having some local employees. Basically, this puts restrictions on them like local production requirements. Regional Economic Integration –refers to agreements among countries in a geographic region to reduce and ultimately remove, tariff and non-tariff barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and factors of production between each other. Levels of Economic Integration: Free Trade Area: Remove internal Barriers Customs Union: Common External Barriers Common Market: Free Movement of Factors Economic Union: Common Economic Policy Political Union: Political Integration The Case for and the Case against Regional Integration â €“ For: Increases world production, stimulates growth, regional economic integration can provide additional gains from free trade beyond the international agreements such as GATT and TWO. Against: a regional trade agreement is beneficial only if it creates more trade than it diverts. Impediments to Regional Integration – Nation as a whole may benefit but certain groups within countries may be hurt. Concerns about loss of national sovereignty and control over the nation’s sovereignty and control over the nations monetary, fiscal and trade policies. Trade Creation versus Trade Diversion – When an inefficient non member nation replaces an efficient member nation (NAFTA). Like Mexico replacing China in the textile business. Creation: occurs when free trade leads to the substitution of inefficient domestic production for efficient production in another member country. Diversion: Occurs when efficient non-member production is replaced by inefficient production by a member nation as a result of high trade barriers for non-members. The European Union (EU) – is composed of 27 member countries, covers an area of 4 million square kilometers and has approximately 460 million inhabitants. The EU’s member states combined represent the world’s largest economy by GDP, the seventh largest territory in the world by area and the third largest by population. Political Structure of the European Union: European Commission, Council of the European Union, European Parliament and Court of Justice Optimal Currency Area – In economics, an optimum currency area (OCA), also known as an optimal currency region (OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximize economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency. It describes the optimal characteristics for the merger of currencies or the creation of a new currency. Cop enhagen Criteria – are the rules that define whether a nation is eligible to join the European Union. The criteria require that a nation have the institutions to preserve democratic governance and human rights, a functioning market economy, and that the nation accept the obligations and intent of the EU. The Lisbon Treaty – The Treaty of Lisbon (also known as the Reform Treaty) is a treaty designed to streamline the workings of the European Union (EU) with amendments to the Treaty on European Union (TEU, Maastricht) and the Treaty establishing the European Community (TEC, Rome), the latter being renamed Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) in the process. The stated aim of the treaty is â€Å"to complete the process started by the Treaty of Amsterdam and by the Treaty of Nice with a view to enhancing the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the Union and to improving the coherence of its action.† The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): Pros and Cons of NAFTA – Pros: Labor intensive industries move to Mexico, resulting in better resource allocation, Mexico gets investment and employment, increased Mexican income to buy US/Canadian goods, demand for goods increases jobs, consumers get lower prices. Cons: Loss of jobs to Mexico for people who don’t have other employment options, Mexican firms have to compete against efficient US/Canadian firms, environmental degradation, loss of national sovereignty. The Andean Community – The Andean Community is mainly a trade block formerly called the Andean Group (Grupo Andino, in Spanish) which saw light after the Andean Pact (Pacto Andino) or more formally the Cartagena Agreement (Acuerdo de Cartagena) was signed in 1969, in Cartagena (Colombia). Mercado Comà ºn del Sur (MERCOSUR) – Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuala. Was originally envisioned as a common market but has yet to reach that goal. Critics contend the agreement results in more trade diversion than trade creation as a result of the high external tariffs. Free Trade Area of the Americas –was a proposal to expand NAFTA to include all countries in the Western Hemisphere, except Cuba. This region has 850 million people and a $13.5 trillion economy. Talks are stalled and stronger support would be needed by the USA and Brazil for this agreement to become a reality. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) / ASEAN Free Trade Area – Ind onesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia. Total population of 500 million, GDP of US $740 billion, and a total trade of US $720 billion A free trade area among some of the nations exists, but several nations are refusing to lower all tariffs. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) – Founded in 1990 to promote open trade and economic cooperation. Currently has 21 members including the United States, Japan and China. Members account for 57% of the world’s GNP and 46% of global trade. Despite little progress, it could potentially become the world’s largest free trade area. Fiscal versus Monetary Policy – Market economies have regular fluctuations in the level of economic activity which we call the business cycle. It is convenient to think of the business cycle as having three phases. The first phase is expansion when the economy is growing along its long term trends in employment, output, and income. But at some point the economy will overheat, and suffer rising prices and interest rates, until it reaches a turning point — a peak — and turn downward into a recession (the second phase). Recessions are usually brief (six to nine months) and are marked by falling employment, output, income, prices, and interest rates. Most significantly, recessions are marked by rising unemployment. The economy will hit a bottom point — a trough — and rebound into a strong recovery (the third phase). The recovery will enjoy rising employment, output, and income while unemployment will fall. The recovery will gradually slow down as the economy once again assumes its long term growth trends, and the recovery will transform into an expansion. Foreign Exchange Market –a market for converting the currency of one country into the currency of another. Exchange Rate – the rate at which one currency is converted into another. Foreign Exchange Risk – the risk of an investment’s value changing due to changes in the currency exchange rates. Arbitrage – the purchase of a product in one market for immediate resale in a second market in order to profi t from a price discrepancy. Currency Speculation – short-term movement of funds from one currency to another in hopes of profiting from shifts in exchange rates. Spot Exchanges –the exchange rate at which a foreign exchange dealer would convert one currency to into another currency on that day. Forward Exchanges – the exchange rate at which a foreign exchange dealer will agree to convert one currency into another currency on a specific date in the future. Hedging: Forward Contracts versus Options Selling on a Discount versus Selling at a Premium Currency Swaps – A currency swap (or cross currency swap) is a foreign exchange agreement between two parties to exchange a given amount of one currency for another and, after a specified period of time, to give back the original amounts swapped. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination – Law of One Price – The law of one price is an economic law stated as: â€Å"In an efficient market all identical goods must have only one price.† The intuition for this law is that all sellers will flock to the highest prevailing price, and all buyers to the lowest current market price. In an efficient market the convergence on one price is instant. Purchasing Power Parity – The purchasing power parity (PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their purchasing power. Developed by Gustav Cassel in 1920, it is based on the law of one price: the theory states that, in an ideally efficient market, identical goods should have only one price. Big Mac Index – The Big Mac Index is an informal way of measuring the purchasing power parity (PPP) between two currencies and provides a test of the extent to which market exchange rates result in goods costing the same in different countries. As stated in The Economist, it â€Å"seeks to make exchange-rate theory a bit more digestible† In 120 nations the big mac is the same. How Increasing the Money Supply Impacts Exchange Rates Price Discrimination – Price discrimination or yield management occurs when a firm charges a different price to different groups of consumers for an identical good or service, for reasons not associated with costs. Fisher Effect / International Fischer Effect Real versus Nominal Interest Rates 8% interest + 2%inflation = 10% nominal interest. $100 on $1000 loan. Investor Psychology and Bandwagon Effects The Efficient Market School versus the Inefficient Market School – Efficient: Those who believe the foreign exchange market actually predicts things accurately. Fundamental versus Technical Analysis Currency Convertibility: Freely, Externally, and Nonconvertible Currencies Capital Flight – Capital flight, in economics, occurs when assets and/or money rapidly flow out of a country, due to an economic event that disturbs investors and causes them to lower their valuation of the assets in that country, or otherwi se to lose confidence in its economic strength. This leads to a disappearance of wealth and is usually accompanied by a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the affected country (depreciation in a variable exchange rate regime, or a forced devaluation in a fixed exchange rate regime). Transaction versus Translation versus Economic Exposure – Economic exposure: the extent to which a firm’s future international earning power is affected by changes in exchange rates. Lead versus Lag Strategies – Lead: an attempt to collect foreign currency receivables when a foreign currency is expected to depreciate. Lag: An attempt to delay the collection of foreign currency receivables if that currency is expected to appreciate. Delay paying foreign currency payables if the foreign currency is expected to depreciate. International Monetary System – are institutional arrangements countries adopt to govern exchange rates. Exchange Rate Regimes: Formal Dollarization, Fixed, Currency Boards, Pegged, Dirty/Managed Floats and Independently Floating – The Gold Standard – Pegging currencies to gold and guaranteeing convertibility is known as the gold standard. Gold Par Value – The amount of a currency in an ounce, one ounce of gold was referred to as the gold par value. The Bretton Woods Exchange Rate System – Created a fixed exchange rate system where the countries agreed to peg their currencies to the US dollar which was convertible to gold at $35 an ounce. Countries agreed to defend the value of their currencies to within 1% of par value. Currency, Banking and Foreign Debt Crises – Currency speculators believed that the devaluation of the dollar was inevitable. President Nixon dropped the gold standard conversion and the dollar was devalued. Following a second round of speculative attacks, the US dollar was allowed to float against other world currencies. Concerns about the IMF’s Policy Prescriptions – The system of adjustable parities allowed for the devaluation of a country’s currency by more than 10 percent if the IMF agreed that a country’s balance of payments was in â€Å"fundamental disequilibrium.† Moral Hazard – arises when people behave recklessly because they know they will be sav ed if things go wrong. Capital Market – The capital market is the market for securities, where companies and governments can raise longterm funds. The capital market includes the stock market and the bond market. Financial regulators, such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, oversee the capital markets in their designated countries to ensure that investors are protected against fraud. The capital markets consist of the primary market, where new issues are distributed to investors, and the secondary market, where existing securities are traded. Cost of Capital – The cost of capital is an expected return that the provider of capital plans to earn on their investment. Initial Public Offering – Initial public offering (IPO), also referred to simply as a â€Å"public offering†, is when a company issues common stock or shares to the public for the first time. They are often issued by smaller, younger companies seeking capital to expand, but can also be done by large privately-owned companies looking to become publicly traded. Commercial Banks versus Investment Banks Equity Loan: An equity loan is a mo rtgage placed on real estate in exchange for cash to the borrower. For example, if a person owns a home worth $100,000, but does not currently have a lien on it, they may take an equity loan at 80% loan to value (LTV) or $80,000 in cash in exchange for a lien on title placed by the lender of the equity loan. Debt Loans: A loan is a type of debt. This article focuses exclusively on monetary loans, although, in practice, any material object might be lent. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower. Corporate Bonds – A Corporate Bond is a bond issued by a corporation. The term is usually applied to longer-term debt instruments, generally with a maturity date falling at least a year after their issue date. Systematic Risk – In finance, Systemic Risk is that risk which is common to an entire market and not to any individual entity or component thereof. It can be defined as â€Å"financial system instability, potentially catastrophic, caused or exacerbated by idiosyncratic events or conditions in financial intermediaries†[1]. It refers to the movements of the whole economy and has wide ranging effects. It is also sometimes erroneously referred to as â€Å"systematic risk†. Portfolio Diversification – By using the global capital market, investors have a much wider range of investment opportunities than in a purely domestic capital market. The most significant consequence of this choice is that investors can diversify their portfolios internationally, thereby reducing their risk to below what could be achieved in a purely domestic capital market. Drivers of the Global Capital Market: Information Technology: Financial services is an information-intensive industry. It draws on large volumes of information about markets, risks, exchange rates, interest rates, creditworthiness, and so on. It uses this information to make decisions about what to invest where, how much to change borrowers, how much interest to pay to depositors, and the value and riskiness of a range of financial assets including corporate bonds, stocks, government securities, and currencies. Deregulation: Many restrictions have been crumbling in the US since the early 80s. In this part, this has been a response to the development of the Eurocurrency market, which from the beginning was outside of national control. Hot Money: In economics, hot money refers to funds which flow into a country to take advantage of a favorable interest rate, and therefore obtain higher returns. They influence the balance of payments and strengthen the exchange rate of the recipient country while weakening the currency of the country losing the money. These funds are held in currency markets by speculators as opposed to national banks or domestic investors. As such, they are highly volatile in Mexico and East Asian financial crisis. Patient Money: Selling land in large blocks under frontier conditions is to sell at a time before it begins yielding much if any rent. It is bid in by those few who have large discretionary funds of patient money. Eurocurrency – Eurocurrency is the term used to describe deposits residing in banks that are located outside the borders of the country that issues the currency the deposit is denominated in. For example a deposit denominated in US dollars residing in a Japanese bank is a Eurocurrency deposit, or more specifically a Eurodollar deposit. Attractions and Drawbacks of the Eurocurrency Market Attractions: Lack of government regulation. Drawbacks: When depositors use a regulated banking system they know that the probability of a bank failure that would cause them to lose their deposits is very low. Secondly, borrowing funds internationally can expose a company to foreign exchange risk. Reserve Requirements – The reserve requirement (or required reserve ratio) is a bank regulation that sets the minimum reserves each bank must hold to customer deposits and notes. These reserves are designed to satisfy withdrawal demands, and would normally be in the form of fiat currency stored in a bank vault (vault cash), or with a central bank. Foreign Bonds vs. Eurobonds: A Eurobond is an international bond that is denominated in a currency not native to the country where it is issued. It can be categorised according to the currency in which it is issued. London is one of the centers of the Eurobond market, but Eurobonds may be traded throughout the world – for example in Singapore or Tokyo. Attractions of the Eurobond Market – Absence of regulatory interference. Less stringent disclosure requirements than in most domestic bond markets. A favorable tax status. The Impact of Exchange Rate Risk on the Cost of Capital Benefits and Costs of Financial Globalization Inter-Temporal Trade – Consumption smoothing usually between advanced economies and developing economies. Developing economies need money NOW. Capital Mobility – The ability of money to cross national borders. The free flow of money in and out of a country. Impossible Trinity – The Impossible Trinity (also known as the Inconsistent Trinity, Triangle of Impossibility or Unholy Trinity) is the hypothesis in international economics that it is impossible to have all three of the following at the same time: Exchange Rate Stability, Independent Monetary Policy, and Capital Mobility. You can only have 2 of these 3 things at the same time ever. The Exchange Rate is simply the relative price of currencies. For example: It tells you how many Euros you can get for a dollar. A government has to main monetary policies it can use: The Fiscal Policy, or the Monetary Policy The Fiscal Policy concerns government expenditures and tax collection The Monetary Policy concerns the interest rate in the economy. The interest rates are established to help stabilize the economy.

Critical evaluation on the standard model of professional legal ethics Essay

Critical evaluation on the standard model of professional legal ethics (neutral -partisanship ) - Essay Example According to this theory, the lawyers need to keep high standards of morality in their profession and this at times goes against the interest of their clients. According to Atkinson (1993)â€Å"The concept of lawyering are two correlated principles, partisanship and neutrality. The first of these, partisanship, is the more obvious:' the lawyer is to use all legal means, and the maximum of personal energy and zeal, to advance any client end, subject only to the constraint of the outer limits of the letter of the law. The second, less obvious, principle is neutrality toward the morality of clients' purposes†. Lawyers are the law protecting agents of the society; hence they have the superior obligation to work for the fulfillment of the justice and preservation of the law. The model of professional legal ethics aspire the legal professionals in setting a foundation which is strong in terms of moral and ethics. However, the lawyers have the obligation to heed to his conscience whe n considering a legal fight. A lawyer should not only focus on the freedom of his clients but consider whether the client is ethically right or wrong. Finally, the legal professional ethics aims at serving the interest of the clients but this should not be achieved by going against the moral and ethical standards of the law. Analysis of few cases in relation to professional ethical standards In this section certain cases are being assessed in terms of the professional ethical standards. This is done to consider the implication of ethics and morals by the legal profession in defending their clients. These case studies focus on the problems and dilemmas faced by the lawyers when acting in favor of their clients .A lawyer is a professional with high moral obligation towards his clients as well as the society. Even thought the neutral partisanship allows a lawyer in acting in favor of his clients, it also ask him to act according to the law - abiding rules and principles. He should not reject the moral and ethical values and only look in to the protection of his client. In order to find the complication faced by lawyers, we can study few cases which demand the ethical and moral obligation from the lawyers. Surat & Scheingold(1998) claims that â€Å"The role of lawyers and the scope for legal activity is, for example, considerably broader in the American than in the British common law system. Similarly, in times of crisis, liberal regimes may undertake repressive measures that undermine the rule of law and drive cause lawyers into defensive postures†. Case 1 : Acting for the Pride of Britain Organisation Harold Truman a multi – billionaire is the man who represent the Pride of Britain Organization, which is a political party with specific interest to support British nationals. This political party, PBO which is funded by Truman has taken anti – immigrant stands to protect the job opportunity of British nationals by hindering the prosperity of m igrants. The Truman has contacted the Monkmans solicitors for working on behalf of PBO and initializing the anti – immigrant policies. However, the Monksmans solicitors being a representative for refugees, asylum seekers and economic migrants presented strong objections to the interests of Truman and PBO. Trumen being the client of Monksman solicitors, has the right to get sufficient favors from the latter .However, considering their professional ethics and morals principles, the Monksmans Solicitors decided to abide by their mission of protecting the rights and privileges of local immigrants and refugees . They denied working against their true professional motives, to not to jeopardize their reputation as a protector of immigrants .The case conveys the message that being a lawyer is not only about serving the client

Philosophy Inquiry Study Review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Philosophy Inquiry Study Review - Assignment Example The study aimed at evaluating the existing differences in responses particularly from the black children as compared to the other children in the classrooms chosen for the study. This objective involved the role of questioning in socialization and  language. Variation of questions  was evaluated  in  proportion  to other types of responses or utterances contained in the three circumstances, as well as the uses of different questions and the assumptions on the functions of questions as established by the author. The objective of the research work was to  indicate  verbal strategies, and how the resultant ethnographic data in the home and community settings could be applied in comparing the collected data in the functions of  language  studies carried out in the classrooms. The research involved collecting  information  beyond the confines of the classroom, i.e. the interactions at the children’s  home  and also the teachers’ homes. This provided the  right  criteria for effective schooling ethnography. The research also aimed at demonstrating the desirability of long term  research  as shown in the author intermittently engaging health in the study for a period of 5 years. The study also aimed at demonstrating the  utility  of incorporating a  clear  frame of reference for use in the study.  The frame of reference used for this particular study was the ethnography of communication and language socialization.  These two elements are recent developments are interdisciplinary in cultural anthropology. The study also had direct  potential  of  application  for  education  improvement in the classroom through the interaction of the community and the  school. Research method The research presents  data  on the  usage  of questions in three different  circumstances. The  study  setup  was carried  out in a city located in the Southeastern United States, known to  comprise  o f black residents of the working class  community, children from this  community  who attended the classrooms selected for the study, and also comprising of the teachers’ homes who teach in the mentioned classrooms. The field work  was carried  out for a period of five years in both institutional and community settings. Results of the study  were shared  and discussed among the institutional and community settings. The first phase of the study  was carried  out in a group comprising of only black residents with the members identifying themselves as a community, both on the basis of  group  membership or spatial members. This  group  was referred  to as  Trackton  in order to  differentiate  the  group  from the entire  public  community. Majority of  Trackton  households had one or more of their members between the ages of 21 and 45, and worked in jobs that provided  high  or  equal  salaries to the teachers. Rulings of segregation often  put  black children to be taught by white teachers, in classrooms that were  formerly  for white students. The key focus on field work was the acquisition of language uses, ways of satisfying needs of children by learning language use, information transmission, asking questions, and convincing other children and adults that they were  competent  communicators. Data  was collected  for a period of five years while observing and participating in the classrooms and some homes for the teachers. Data  collection  was done  across a broad range of  circumstances, as well as longitudinally following the

Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Criminal Justice - Essay Example As a result, the needs of the female prisoners are often disregarded thus negatively affecting their mental and physical health in the process. It has also been observed that the failure to meet the needs of the female prisoners deprives them of their right to basic dignity and leads to the violation of their fundamental human rights (Law and Whitehorn, 2012). Some of the key issues commonly faced by female prisoners include custodial sexual misconduct; caring for their children; lack of availability of adequate healthcare facilities suited for their needs; lack of accessible services; vulnerability to abuse; etc among others. The needs and concerns of female prisoners are starkly different as compared to their male counterparts, a fact which has been largely ignored so far. Unlike men, the female prisoners are solely responsible for caring for their young children. In such a situation, isolation due to confinement inevitably takes a toll on their mental health. Furthermore they are relatively more vulnerable to abuse and neglect in prison due to the differences in the sexual and reproductive health as compared to males. Issues such as these are hence likely to aggravate the mental and health problems faced by them (UN Office of Drugs and Crime, 2008). Women are also found to be highly vulnerable to prison abuse (Clear, Reisig, and Cole, 2012). Their mental health in particular is far more likely to deteriorate while in confinement due to factors such as overcrowding, lack of proper assessment procedures, discomfort on account of being supervised by male staff, etc (McElreath, Keena, Elter and Stuart, 2011; Stohr, Hemmens, and Walsh, 2008). Furthermore it has also been observed by various researchers that women are more prone to attempt suicide while in confinement due to mental stress and trauma, and lack of availability of appropriate healthcare facilities to address their specific healthcare needs (Petersilia and Reitz, 2012). Critical evaluation: There has been a significant rise in the number of female prisoners in the United States during the past two decades. This sudden increase of female offenders can largely be contributed to stricter punishment and longer incarceration for drug offenders, as a part of the war on drugs campaign. Thus, the policies introduced by the administration to eliminate and / or reduce the disparities in sentencing, ultimately led to the rise of female inmates behind bars (Stange, Oyster, and Sloan, 2011; Miller, 2009). According to the American Civil Liberties Union, women comprise of the fastest growing segment of the incarcerated population, increasing at nearly double the rate of men, in the United States (ACLU, 2007). There is substantial evidence indicating the substantial over-representation of women of color in the American prisons as well as the criminal justice system, with Blacks and Hispanics comprising of the largest female population behind bars (Law and Whitehorn, 2012; Oberman and Meyer, 20 08). Some of the key reasons behind the increased incarceration rates of females belonging to the minority population include poverty, and unemployment which significantly hampers their ability to provide and care for their families. Their demographic and socio-economic background makes them highly prone to commit economically driven crimes such as property crimes, prostitution and at times drug

Bible Story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bible Story - Essay Example In spite of the prohibition, Eve and Adam disobeyed God through the prodding of Satan, disguised as a serpent. As punishment, God banished them from paradise and they became mortals. They had two sons, Cain and Abel. Cain, being the envious one, killed Abel because God likes Abel more. God cursed Cain. The third son was Seth and they had more children that the Earth was populated. However, the people became decadent and sinful. God decided to wipe out the population of the Earth with the exception of Noah and his family, plus pairs of animals who were to be saved in the ark that was ordered by god. For 40 days and 40 nights, the flood cleansed the Earth. After that, god promised that there won’t be anymore floods and Noah thanked him. Noah’s children filled the Earth again and they, again, became decadent and sinful. They worshipped many gods and idols including the Tower of Babel. God punished them by confusing their languages and scattered them all over the Earth. The n God chose Abraham to start a people that would worship him including instructions to go to Canaan, promising Abraham that he would be leader of the Canaanites. He also told Abraham to circumcise himself and all of his male descendants as a sign of faith.

A South Affican Investment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A South Affican Investment - Essay Example They argue that this profit would then be used to help move blacks into positions of management. Indeed, CalTex could show that they had moved 40% of their black work force into positions once only held by whites. They also showed that their operations had moved blacks into 22% of their lower management positions. They also were paying a higher than average wage to their black workers, resulting in improved living conditions. The argument against the utilitarian benefits of CalTex continuing to refine oil did not negate the political realities of South Africa. None of their black workers were able to unionize, vote or even travel into â€Å"white† areas without special permission. The negation of these basic human rights counteracted any good that CalTex was providing to the black community through job opportunities, improved wages or slight upward mobility. Building the plant would give tax revenue to the government and imply cooperation with the regime. I believe that it is more important for the corporation to not expand because without basic human rights, a better job doesn’t really make life much better. I believe that as a stockholder I should have voted for CalTex to suspend operations in South Africa. This first proposition was the best way to set a good example of moral corporate governance. I would know that I would surely lose money if the other stockholders voted with me, but I would feel better about the future profits of the company. CalTex is an international company and pulling out of South Africa would not have a long-term effect. The refinery could have been sold and the corporation could have withdrawn. As to the second proposition of not selling to the military, I believe that I would not have voted for this proposition. The simple fact is that South Africa had passed a law specifically against such actions. My feeling is that if a corporation is going to do business in a given country, they should obey the laws

Asian American History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Asian American History - Essay Example The paper explores Southeast Asian migration to the US in the wake of the Southeast Asian crisis and their subsequent experiences in the alien land and how they coped up in a given situation. Early Migrations Takaki dates Asian migration back to 1835 when a sugar mill owner began his sugar business in Hawaii. Local workers were not efficient enough to carry on his sugar mill operations. When he replaced them with Chinese workers, he found them more efficient. Perhaps, that was the first time when Chinese or Asian workers got its due recognition so much so that during laying of transcontinental railroads in 1834, it was decided to employ Chinese workers. By 1867, there were more than twelve thousand Chinese workers employed at the Central Pacific Railroad Soon stories of Hawaii were reaching to other shores. Between 1903 and 1920, in their bid to escape from the clutches of Japanese, more than eight thousand Koreans migrated to the US. The migration to the U.S. from other Asian countr ies such as Korea, Philippines, and India continued unabated (Takaki 21, 53). The Global Cold War and Hot Wars of Southeast Asia The end of World War II marked a new beginning of Asian migrations in the US. The global cold war between the Soviet Union and the US intensified after the end of World War II and Asia became a battleground in a process to leave an imprint on many underdeveloped and poor Asian countries by the two diametrically opposite economic and political ideologies – namely the USSR and the US. Cambodia which was a French colony until 1953 had a major political upheaval thereafter. Chandler mentions the radical thinking of Pol Pot: â€Å"We all carry vestiges of our old class character, deep-rooted for generations† (44). He believed in destroying these things in order to achieve socialism. The fight between Lon Nol's Khmer Republic supported by the U.S. and the Khmer Rouge supported by communists from North Vietnam brought an extraordinary turmoil within the country. Communism was exported to Cambodia via Vietnam during the time when both were under French rule. The Civil war in 1970-75 took the toll of more than 500,000 people and displaced more than three million people from its place. Khmer Rouge's ideology had several facets. As Chan puts it, "Fearing pollution or contamination, they savagely went about eradicating all those whom they deemed impure" ("Cambodia’s Darkest Hour" 14). Khmer Rouge believed more in the concept of race overthrowing the concept of class. It was neither a peasant revolution nor a revolution meant for working class. That is why Khmer Rouge began evacuating Phnom Penh on the same day after capturing it. In a most pathetic incident, the patients from the largest civilian hospital from the Phnom Penh were evacuated first. In a few days, the city's entire population was asked to move on the plea that Americans might bomb. In a bizarre and well-thought out move, approximately 2.5 million people were as ked to leave their houses and places. Some of the Khmer leaders, such as Hou Yuon who opposed the evacuation, were removed from the scene. The citizens were completely baffled and wandering without shelter and food. Thousands of them died of illness, thirst, and starvation. The former military officers and government officials who were called to take specific instructions never returned.

Spanish, British, and French colonial experiences Essay Example for Free

Spanish, British, and French colonial experiences Essay For the Spanish, their motives were economic and religion. They wanted to Christianize Natives. They were mostly located in South America, Central America, and the West Indies. The British motives were only economical. They were located in North America and in the West Indies. The only type of people that were allowed to be with the Spanish were mostly only Catholics or you had to be from a noble family and you had to be homogenous. Anyone could be with the British. There were diverse races and the people were in Religious and Ethnic groups. The Spanish finances were based on Public/Crown Financed terms and for the British it was Joint Stock/Private terms. The Spanish had relations with exploited natives and they also believed in intermarrying with natives. They also believed in enslavement and they were associated with the Mestivo and they wanted to Christianize everyone. If you were not converted to Christian, you were killed. The British also had relations with exploited natives. They did not believe in intermarrying or enslavement. They did believe in Separation and Removal to the West. The Spanish government was highly centralized. There was less self-government. Governors were representatives of Crown- Viceroys There were no democratic traditions. The British government was decentralized and there was much more self-government. The British simply neglected to enforce or regulate. Democracys seeds are planted. Economically, many Spanish had tried exploiting and going home-they did not posses the mind set to develop as much as North Americans. Government regulation is in a form of regulation of emigration and trade. For the British, most settlers, stayed in New World and invested. The government stayed clear of economic activity for most part.

The friendship that exists with Stephen and Keith Essay Example for Free

The friendship that exists with Stephen and Keith Essay In the first chapter of Michael Frayns novel Spies, amongst the limited amount of characters introduced, is Keith. The reader is given no background knowledge about him, only that Does he ever think about the things that happened that summer? meaning that Keith is a significant person as it is implied that he shared the narrators (revealed as Stephen in chapter 2) experience that particular, somewhat haunting summer. However in Chapter 2 a lot more information is given about Keith and details about the depth of friendship between Keith and Stephen begin to emerge. In Chapter 2, one of the first memories Stephen comes to is that of his house. in spite of the fact that its attached to No.3- the only semidetached pair in the Close, indicating that Stephen is somewhat the odd one out, when he says only, and almost uncomfortable about admitting to this. He then goes on to describe his ghastly neighbours who were even more shameful than his house, and how they brought us down with them., and he then goes on to expresses his distress about being attached to the undesirables. Also that he was still somewhat faintly embarrassed about it despite all the years that had past. Throughout this chapter, Stephen implies to the reader how his house was neglected, and never tended to, and this could easily link to his and his parents relationship with each other. Next, Stephen then describes how he doesnt need to open the front gate because its already, rotted drunkenly away from the top hinge, as he makes his way to Keiths house, however, once arriving there, he goes through the White wicket gate on its well oiled hinges and closes it carefully behind him. The keywords here are white suggesting purity (unlike the rot on Stephens gate), and carefully as Stephen obviously feels he should treat Keiths gate with respect, even if he has no regard for his own, as it has been so well maintained. Immediately the gates highlight the contrast between Keith and Stephen, however the contrast then grows as the reader is introduced to Keiths house, which is perceived as neat, flawless and perfection by Stephen. This is because Keiths house is exactly the opposite of Stephens, and the unlikely forming of friendship of these two boys is defiantly presented with the differences of lifestyle and houses. Another key point used in the presentation of friendship between Stephen and Keith is the boys appearance. Stephen is described as grubby, with one of his grey socks slipping down his leg into a thick concertina. The narrator (older Stephen) asks the rhetorical question What do I feel about him as I watch him now?, and then goes on to answer this himself claiming his appearance to be unsatisfactory. Keith is then bought into the story, and his appearance, like the houses, is the exact opposite of Stephen; His shirt, though, not to short, his shorts are not to long. Also he is described as neat compared to his unsatisfactory friend. However the most significant thing about the boys appearances is their uniform. The narrator describes how once seeing Keith, he no longer views himself as monochrome or slightly ashamed of his younger self. This is purely down to the fact that he can now see both their belts. The boys each have a different colour belt; Stephens being green whereas Keiths is yellow. The reader then learns why, as well as some more background information on Stephen and Keith. Were socially colour coded for ease of reference. Meaning that being green is the colours of a wrong school. This tells the reader that the boys do not go to school together, and Keith goes to a much higher rated school in the society around them. From this alone the reader can gain a better understanding of the social differences between the two boys, the houses also lead to the fact that Keith is a great deal wealthier than Stephen. Moving on to the games room in Keiths house, it is immediately clear of the presentation of the social differences once again, His playroom was well ordered as the rest of the house, from this we can once again confirm that Keith is a great deal better off than Stephen, All Keiths toys are his own. Not only this, but the reader can begin to figure out the boys individual personalities- Stephen is care-free and entirely not phased by his appearance, where as Keith is a very neat, and well organised personality. Once again, complete opposites, which is what the narrator wants to show to the reader. Not only do objects, and clothes define the differences in Stephens and Keiths relationship, but both their parents do as well. For example Keiths mum, is very similar to Keith as she takes pride in her appearance, she raises her perfectly plucked eyebrows. His father is also similar to the glamorised perfect family image that Stephen is creating, as he spends most of his time trimming, pruning, and perfecting things such as the garden. Not only this, but the relationship between parents and child seems to be quite strong, as they put the same amount of effort and love into their property and appearance as they do with Keith. He even has various pet names such as old chap or old bean, and his mother seem to always want to know what Keith is doing/ up to. But, when Stephen goes on to describe his family, once again, completely different, and the parents reflect their child, as Stephens dad is described to be unsatisfactory as Stephens, not only this, but his parents have no pet names for him, or seem to particularly care where he is going. The conflicting backgrounds of the boys dont seem to affect their relationship in the slightest. To summarise, although the author presents the boys to be of entirely different backgrounds, wealth, and social status, he makes it known to the reader that these are the foundations on which the boys friendship is built on. Being different to each other only draws them closer together. For instance, Keith calls the shots, but Stephen is still astonished and proud that Keith even wants to be his friend (as he is so ashamed of himself and his family) so doesnt feel resentful in the slightest, He was the officer corps in our two man army. I was the Other Ranks- and grateful to be so. Although Stephen may envy Keiths lifestyle, he certainly doesnt hold any judgement towards him, and is glad that he gets to share an experience of how the other half lives. Despite the various class/economical clashes, the boys are still great friends, and seem to follow suit that opposites do attract.

Cannabis Use in Canada: Legislation and the Future

Cannabis Use in Canada: Legislation and the Future Crime refers to behaviors that are a violation of codified law. However, the exact definition of crime is complex and ever-changing, as it depends on social, political and economic factors. For example, what may be considered a crime one day, may be seen as legal the next (Law Commission, 2004). This concept is exemplified by the evolution of laws regarding the possession of cannabis that has occurred throughout the years in Canada. Ever since cannabis and its derivatives have been introduced in Canada years ago, government prohibition of it has been the subject of an ongoing debate of whether it should be legalized or not. Proponents of cannabis use argue that there are numerous medical benefits and that the drug is no more harmful than tobacco or alcohol (CAMH, 2014). Therefore, prohibiting cannabis intrudes on an individuals fundamental freedoms. On the other hand, opponents argue that cannabis is too dangerous; its legalization would increase the chances of the drug falling into the hands of children and that cannabis use often progresses to the use of more dangerous drugs like heroin and cocaine (Evans, 2013). This paper analyzes the current approach to possession of cannabis in Canada, paying close attention to relevant laws and legal cases. This paper will further argue that from a variety of approaches to deal with cannabis, legalization is the most useful and effective method. Background Cannabis, primarily derived from the female plant, Cannabis sativa, is believed to have evolved on the steppes of Central Asia. The history of cannabis use goes back as far as 12,000 years, which places the plant among humanitys oldest cultivated crops (CAMH, 2014). The first record of the drugs medicinal use dates to 4000 B.C. where it was used as an anesthetic during surgery. From the 17th to the mid 20th century, standardized cannabis found their way into British and US pharmacopoeias and was widely used in western medicine, often considered a household drug used for treating various kinds of ailment ranging from headaches and toothaches to menstrual cramps (MacQueen, 2013). Cannabis eventually fell out of use in western medicine, and was banned in most countries as part of national and international drug control legislation that was originally designed to control traffic in opiates but was extended to include a broad range of other psychoactive agents. However, in the 1970s, cann abis use rose dramatically and became a part of the youth culture due to its mood and perception altering properties, which made it a recreational drug of choice for many individuals (Blaszczak-Boxe, 2014). Throughout its long history, parts of the cannabis plant have been smoked, chewed, eaten, and even brewed for its effects on the human biochemistry. Marijuana- also called weed, pot, grass, reefer, and a vast number of other slang terms- comes primarily from the flower part of the cannabis plant and is one of the most abused drugs in the world (Evans, 2013). There are hundreds of compounds in marijuana, but the chemical responsible for the drugs psychoactive effects is tetrahydrocannbinol, or THC. Marijuana affects two main parts of the human body, the central nervous system and the cardiovascular system (CAMH, 2014). The central nervous system, which mainly controls thoughts and registers sensations throughout the body, can be impacted through varying doses of marijuana. For example, a low dose of marijuana results in a sense of well being and drowsiness/relaxation (Ponto et al., 2004). As the dose increases, other effects tend to come in, usually altered sense of time and sensory a wareness. At much higher to extreme doses, paranoia, hallucinations, panic attacks and delusions have been reported to occur. The cardiovascular system can be affected by cannabis use through increased heart rate and dilation of eye blood vessels. There can also be difficulties in body movement and coordination as the dosage of cannabis increases (Ponto et al., 2004). As with some other psychoactive drugs, the use of cannabis is not benign. Research has found both benefits and harms associated with cannabis use. Cannabis has therapeutic qualities and many people consume it for its psychoactive effects (Room et al., 2010). A number of the potentially useful effects have been well studied and confirmed scientifically in both experimental animals and human volunteers and patients. One of these is the moderately good analgesic action, principally against chronic musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain (Evans, 2013). Furthermore, only about ten percent of individuals who consume the drug become dependent, a rate that is extremely low in comparison to other illicit and legal drugs. In fact, tobacco, a drug that is considered legal in Canada, has a dependency rate of 32% (Health Canada, 2015). The potential for harm exists, particularly for people who consume it frequently or begin using in adolescence. These harms include impairment of learning, memory, alertness, reaction speed and judgment (Babor et al., 2010). Those who are dependent on cannabis have been documented to face both cardiovascular and respiratory issues such as chronic bronchitis. In addition, research suggests that high levels of cannabis use can be linked to lung and prostate cancer (Room et al., 2010). Despite the negative effects of high levels of cannabis use, it is crucial to acknowledge the fact that most individuals do not become dependent on the drug. Rather, most will experiment with cannabis use only a few times in their life (Room et al., 2010). Canada has one of the highest rates of cannabis use in the world. Despite the existence of serious criminal penalties for possessing, producing, and selling cannabis, the 2013 Canadian Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey found that 40% of Canadians have used cannabis in their lifetime and about 10% report having used it in the past year (Health Canada, 2015). Additionally, the survey indicates that Canadian youth aged 15 to 19 are more likely to consume cannabis than adult Canadians. In fact, Canadian adolescents have among the highest rates of cannabis use compared to their peers in other developed countries (UNICEF Office of Research, 2013). According to the 2012 Canadian Community Health survey, 22.4% of youth aged 15 to19 reported past-year use of cannabis and in total, youth use cannabis at a rate 2.5 times higher than adults aged 25 and older (Statistics Canada, 2015). In view of these statistics, it is unsurprising that cannabis is widely available throughout Canada and that a w ell-established cannabis market exists in Canada. Laws surrounding the possession of Cannabis in Canada In Canada, cannabis use became illegal in 1923 after the Act to Prohibit the Improper Use of Opium and other Drugs added cannabis to the list of illicit substances. Cannabis then became an illegal substance under the same category of harder drugs such as cocaine and heroin, despite lack of scientific or criminal correlations to suggest such categorization (CAMH, 2014). An increase in illicit drug use in the 1960s and 1970s was met by greatly increased criminalization and the associated individual and social costs. The strain on the courts, and the rising numbers of otherwise law-abiding youth being sentenced for recreational use of cannabis created pressures for the liberalization of Canadas drug laws. As a result, the Commission of Inquiry in the Non-Medical Use of Drugs in 1972 (commonly referred to as the Le Dain Commission) was formed to address the growing concern about drug use and appropriate responses. The Le Dain Commission concluded that drug prohibition, specifically canna bis use, results in high costs but relatively little benefit. The Le Dain Commission proposed that all criminal penalties associated with cannabis be removed, along with the development of less coercive and costly alternatives to punitive punishments, but was immediately rejected by the government at the time (Broughton, 2014). By the mid-1980s there was growing acknowledgement of the limitations of law enforcement in reducing the demand for drugs as the Canadian police forces were pursuing more cannabis arrests than ever before (Hathaway and Erickson 2003). As a result, in 1987, the Canadian federal government announced a harm reduction model approach to drug use to address substance use with both supply and demand reduction strategies. This model views drug use, particularly cannabis use, as an undeniable fact in society and seeks to reduce the harms caused by it rather than advocating abstinence (Hathaway and Erickson 2003). Despite this model, Canadas approach to cannabis was still largely a model of criminal prohibition. For example, Dian Riley of the Canadian Foundation for Drug Policy argues that this model is an ineffective and inappropriate drug policy that causes more harm than the drug itself (Broughton, 2014, p.4). In fact, since the first three years after the implementation of the program, the proportion of drug offenders in Canadas prison rose from 9 percent to 14 percent (Hathaway and Erickson 2003). The Controlled Drugs and Substances Act In 1997, there was the introduction of a new drug law that was meant to address some of the problems of past law and to adapt some of the positive experiences of other countries around the globe. The new law, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996), is Canadas federal drug control statute and establishes eight Schedules of controlled substances and two Classes of precursors. This act outlines penalties for possession, trafficking and production of the substances established as illegal, including cannabis (MacQueen, 2013). Under this act, cannabis and its derivatives are considered as schedule II drugs and possession of it is illegal (Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, 1996). However, due to R. v. Parker (2001), the Supreme Court of Canada declared that section 4 of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, which deals with the prohibition against possession of marijuana, was too broad insofar as it failed to create an exception for medical marijuana use. As such, in 2001 Health C anada issued a set of regulations giving individuals access to marijuana for medical purposes. The Medical Marihuana Access Regulations (2001), which went into effect in 2002, outlined two categories of individuals who may legally access marijuana prescribed by their doctor. These two categories mainly deal with individuals suffering from severe pain as a result of medical conditions. Individuals who have a medical condition described in category 1 or who are approved under category 2 can legally obtain medicinal marijuana distributed by the company CannaMed or can grow their own for personal consumption (Broughton, 2014). Thus, it is possible to have legal access to marijuana for medical purposes in Canada while recreational use of marijuana is still a criminal act. Despite the tough penalties in place, the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996)has been criticized for criminalizing drug users and its failure to reduce drug availability while at the same time the financial and human costs of criminating cannabis continue to rise. Additionally, analyses of current policy practices demonstrate a failure to achieve the set out goals of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996)in reducing the consumption of cannabis (Broughton, 2014). Instead, criminalization has created further social issues. For example, an increase in arrests under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996) has not led to a decrease in the use of marijuana, with around 60,000 Canadian arrested for simple possession every year. On the contrary, the number of distributors and consumers has only increased in recent years (Room et al., 2010, p.60). The experiences within Canadian courts also demonstrate the inefficiency of the current approach to cannabis. For example, th e case of R. v. Malmo-Levine (2003) deals with the possession of marijuana. Malmo-Levine was charged with possession and trafficking of marijuana. He argued that the criminalization and punishment of possession of marijuana goes against his rights as stated in section 7 in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms declares that everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice (Canadian Charter, 1982, s 7). Malmo-Lavine argued that, by attaching a criminal penalty of imprisonment for simple possession of marijuana the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996)deprived him of liberty in a manner that is not in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice. Malmo-Lavine suggested that it is a principle of fundamental justice that the criminal law can only prohibit activities that cause some sort of harm, and the possession of marijuana does not constitute as harm to others(R. v. Malmo-Levine, 2003). Justice Arbour, in the dissenting opinion, stated that the criminalization of cannabis punishes those who pose little risk to society and limits their Charter rights. Nevertheless, the majority of the Supreme Court of Canada did not agree with Justice Arbours argument and instead ruled that the law against the recreational use of marijuana did not violate the Charter in any of the ways suggested by Malmo-Lavine (R. v. Malmo-Levine, 2003). The cases of Readhead (2008) and Evers (2011), further exemplifies how the approaches outlined in the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996) leads to unnecessary arrests and unfair targeting of individuals. In R. v. Readhead (2008), the accused was charged with the possession of marijuana and possession of marijuana for the purpose of trafficking and was sentenced to a term of imprisonment of two and one half years. Readhead argued that the sentencing judge erred in his decision and asked for a fairer sentence. The British Columbia Court of Appeal stated that the sentence prescribed by the sentencing judge is within the proper scope of his judgment, but still reduced the sentence to two years less a day. As pointed out by the British Columbia Court of Appeal, Readheads past experience with the law, in which he has three previous charges for trafficking marijuana, did not deter or rehabilitate him in any way( R. v. Readhead, 2008). In R. v. Evers (2011), the accused was charged wi th the offences of unlawfully producing a controlled substance and possessing this substance for the purposes of trafficking. However, despite Everss lack of remorse for producing marijuana and her explicitly stating that she intended to continue her grow operation, the trial judge did not impose any jail time. The trial judge stated that there was no point in imprisoning Evers as doing so would only make her a martyr for the legalization of marijuana (R. v. Evers, 2011). Both of these cases show the ineffectiveness of the current law in deterring individuals from possessing and using cannabis. The prohibition of cannabis and criminalization of its users does not deter people from consuming it. The evidence on this point is clear: tougher penalties do not lead to lower rates of cannabis use (Chandra, 2014). Perhaps it is time that there should be an examination of the actual effects of cannabis on Canadians rather than blindly prohibiting the possession of cannabis. Alternatives to Cannabis Prohibition As discussed above, all available evidence indicates that the criminalization of cannabis use is ineffective, costly, and constitutes poor public policy. Globally, there is growing debate about the efficacy of criminalizing drugs such as cannabis, in particular that the health, social, economic and criminal harms of this approach outweighs any intended benefits (Chandra, 2014). As such, there are three main alternatives to full cannabis prohibition: decriminalization, partial prohibition and legalization. Models of cannabis decriminalization vary greatly, but generally involve removing possession of small amounts of cannabis from the sphere of criminal law. Essentially, prohibition remains, but instead of incarceration the use of cannabis becomes civil violations punishable by fines (Babor et al., 2010). Removing criminal penalties for cannabis possession should result in a reduction in both the number of individuals involved in the criminal justice system and the cost of enforcement , thus reducing the burden to individuals and to the legal system. Moreover, evidence suggests that a decriminalization approach can reduce some of the adverse social impacts of criminalization (CAMH, 2014). An example of a country that follows a decriminalization model is Portugal. Since the implementation of this system, Portugal has seen declines in substance misuse and in drugà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ related harm, a reduced burden on the criminal justice system, and a reduction in the use of illicit drugs by adolescents (Room et al., 2010). While it is not possible to conclusively attribute these trends in Portugal to a shift in decriminalization, these findings present strong support that at the very least, decriminalizing cannabis does not result in major problems. Partial prohibition regimes of cannabis possession are brought about by two distinct approaches, namely either de facto legalization or de jure legalization. Within the model of de facto legislation, cannabis use is formally prohibited by criminal law, yet applicable laws are not enforced and thus not sanctioned by any punitive interventions (Babor et al., 2010). Netherlands famously takes a de facto legalization approach to cannabis. Although the drug is still deemed illegal, personal use of cannabis is tolerated and is made available through dispensaries called coffee shops. Cannabis use or sale outside of the regulated spaces of these coffee shops is followed by police warnings or fines (Babor et al., 2010). In other words, personal cannabis use and supply to the end consumer in the Netherlands is regulated similarly to alcohol or tobacco use in many jurisdictions. One of the major benefits cited for the legally tolerated dispensaries is that it helps consumers from being exposed to illegal markets where there may be availability of harder drugs (Room et al., 2010). Evidence demonstrates that the Netherlands has a lower rate of cannabis use than in the United States which suggests that partial legalization of cannabis will not necessarily lead to an increase in use. Within the model of de jure legalization, personal use quantities are allowed to be carried and consumed by citizens. Punishments of cannabis use are either explicitly written into the drug statute or the scope of the law does not include cannabis possession (Chandra, 2014). These reforms have so far predominantly been aimed at selected places (e.g. the home) or at specific populations (e.g. medical marijuana users) (Babor et al., 2010). An example of a country that follows a de jure model of legalization is Spain. In Spain, possession or use of cannabis is prohibited by the law, yet there is no punishment or enforcement when involving small amounts. In 2002, Cannabis Social Clubs appeared in the country. These are non-commercial organizations of users who get together to cultivate and distribute enough cannabis to meet their personal needs without having to turn to the black market (Alonso, 2011, p. 2). Since, 2002 it is estimated that Cannabis Social Clubs have enabled several thou sand people to stop financing the black market and to know the quality and origin of what they are consuming, whilst creating jobs and tax revenue (Alonso, 2011). A third alternative that has been widely supported is legalization of cannabis with health-focused regulation. Legalization removes the social harms and costs associated with prohibition. In effect, legalization endorses marijuana as socially acceptable. It eliminates criminal penalties, reducing prices, increasing availability, and de-stigmatizing use (Broughton, 2014). Moreover, it is estimated that removing criminal and civil penalties for possession of cannabis would eliminate more than $ 1 billion dollars that is spent annually in Canada to enforce these ineffective laws (Evans, 2013). Advocates of legalization of cannabis point out that cannabis is no more harmful than alcohol or tobacco and should therefore be regulated in a similar fashion. In the same way that alcohol prohibition in Canada was an abject failure which promoted crime and actually loosened the federal governments control over the importation and production of the substance, cannabis can also be seen as leading down the same path (CAMH, 2014). Moreover, advocates in favor of cannabis legalization claim that cannabis use is not an act of criminal nature and thus the federal government does not have the authority to ban it. They further argue that cannabis is neither harmful nor immoral and thus only the province has the power to regulate the use, distribution, and sale of marijuana (CAMH, 2014). This argument would equate marijuana with alcohol, which is also regulated independently by the governments of each province. Like all drugs, cannabis use has negative outcomes (Evans, 2013). However, the evidence shows that this does not justify the prohibition of the drug. For example, legal substances such as alcohol and tobacco can be far more dangerous and addicting than cannabis can ever be capable of, but these substances are still considered legal in Canada. Instead of focusing on the evidence, the mere prohibition of cannabis use only leads to further harm for users. Some opponents of legalization fear that it would send the wrong message about the risks of cannabis. But current rates of cannabis use in Canada already suggest that youth are not getting the right message (MacQueen, 2013). For instance, despite prohibition, 23% of Ontarios high school students and 40% of young adults use cannabis. A 2013 UNICEF study of 29 Wealthy nations found that Canadian youth rank first in cannabis use, but third from last in tobacco use -even though cannabis is illegal while tobacco is legal (MacQueen, 2013). Moreover, an examination of public opinion polls over the last few decades shows a steady increase in the proportion of Canadians who support the legalization of marijuana, rising from only 19 percent in 1977 to 57 percent in 2012 (Grenier, 2013). Lorne Bozinoff of Forum Research Inc says that given these statistics, the public no longer favors devoting time and resources required to restrict marijuana use and possession, instead favoring a legalize and tax strategy (Grenier, 2013, p.4). It is also important to note that legalization alone does not reduce the health risk and harms of cannabis. Instead legalization presents the government with the opportunity to regulate cannabis to mitigate those risks something that cannot be effectively done under decriminalization or prohibition (CAMH, 2014). Legalization under a health-focused model is based on the fundamental principles of harm reduction. Harm reduction is a pragmatic approach to reducing individual and social harms associated with drug use. This approach accepts that certain interventions focused on diminishing the harmfulness of a substance, even if they increase the extent of substance use, may be able to reduce the total adverse consequences on the individual, as well as society (Pates Riley, 2012). In regards to cannabis use, harm reduction approaches acknowledge that there are no known effective solutions for completely eliminating drug-use or drug-related problems in the public. Therefore, the main char acteristic of harm reduction is that it focuses on the reduction of harm as its primary goal, rather than reduction of drug use per se (CAMH, 2014). It is important to note that harm reduction principles are not meant to promote drug use, but instead recognizes the reality of drug use and measures success in terms of quality of life improvements for the individual (Broughton, 2014). For example, legalization of cannabis would attempt to reduce the harmfulness of cannabis use, without necessarily stopping drug use altogether. To reduce harm, legalization of cannabis is a necessary but definitely not a sufficient- condition. It must include effective control on availability and regulation that steers users towards less harmful practices. Conclusion Prohibition of cannabis use has not succeeded in preventing cannabis use or mitigating its harms. On the contrary, it has exacerbated the health harms of cannabis and created costly social ones as well. Legalizing and strictly regulating cannabis allows for more control over the risk factors associated with cannabis-related harm and is a better alternative to the current approach (Broughton, 2014). It is important to realize that the Canada of 1997 when the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996) was first established bears almost no resemblance to Canada of today. This explains why since its inception, the Criminal Code has changed many ambiguous laws to legalize and decriminalize certain actions (e.g., prostitution, assisted suicide, etc). Essentially, the laws have needed to evolve in order to better accommodate societal needs and advancing scientific research. Similarly, based on current research showing that criminalizing cannabis has not been an effective policy, perhaps it is time to re-examine our approach to cannabis use and advocated for legalization. References Alonso, M. (2011). Cannabis social clubs in Spain: A normalizing alternative underway. Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies, 9. Retrieved March 3, 2017, from http://druglawreform.info/en/publications/legislative-reform-series-/item/1095-cannabis-social-clubs-in-spain Babor, T., J., Caulkins, Edwards, G., Fischer, B., Foxcroft, D., Humphreys, K., . . . Strang, J. (2010). Drug policy and the public good. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Blaszczak-Boxe, A. (2014). Marijuanas History: How One Plant Spread Through the World. Retrieved March 01, 2017, from http://www.livescience.com/48337-marijuana-history-how-cannabis-travelled-world.html Broughton, M. (2014). The Prohibition of Marijuana. Manitoba Policy Perspectives, 1(1). Retrieved March 1, 2017, from https://umanitoba.ca/centres/mipr/media/1._Prohibition_of_Marijuana_Broughton.pdf CAMH. (2014). Cannabis Policy Framework. Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Retrieved March 1, 2017, from https://www.camh.ca/en/hospital/about_camh/influencing_public_policy/Documents/CAMHCannabisPolicyFramework.pdf Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c11 Chandra, F. (2014). The Current Approach to Cannabis Possession in Canada: Issues and Alternatives. Sociology and Anthropology Student Union Undergraduate Journal, 1. Retrieved March 3, 2017, from summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/15204/SASU-Chandra.pdf Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, SC 1996, c 19. Retrieved from http://canlii.ca/t/l44r Criminal Code, RSC (1985) c C-46 Evans, D. (2013). The Economic Impacts of Marijuana Legalization. The Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice, 7(4). Retrieved March 4, 2017, from http://www.globaldrugpolicy.org/Issues/Vol%207%20Issue%204/The%20Economic%20Impacts%20of%20Marijuana%20Legalization%20final%20for%20journal.pdf Grenier, E. (2013). Majority of Canadians want to loosen marijuana laws: polls . The Globe and Mail. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/majority-of-canadians-want-to-loosen-marijuana-laws-polls/article14010389/ Hathaway, A. D., Erickson, P. G. (2003). Drug Reform Principles and Policy Debates: Harm Reduction Prospects for Cannabis in Canada. Journal of Drug Issues, 33(2), 465-495. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002204260303300209 Health Canada. (2015). Canadian Tobacco Alcohol and Drugs (CTADS): 2013 summary. Retrieved February 28, 2017, from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/canadian-tobacco-alcohol-drugs-survey/2013-summary.html Law Commission. (2004). What is a crime?: defining criminal conduct in contemporary society. Retrieved March 1, 2017, from http://www.ubcpress.ca/books/pdf/chapters/whatisacrime/whatcrime.pdf MacQueen, L. (2013). Why its time to legalize marijuana. Macleans. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/why-its-time-to-legalize-marijuana/ Marihuana Medical Access Regulations, SOR/ 2001-227 (available on http://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/sor-2001-227/index.html) Pates, R., Riley, D. (2012). Harm Reduction in Canada: The Many Faces of Regression. Harm Reduction in Substance Use and High-risk Behaviour: International Policy and Practice. Retrieved February 26, 2017, from http://canadianharmreduction.com/sites/default/files/Harm%20Reduction%20in%20Canada.pdf Ponto, L. L., Oleary, D. S., Koeppel, J., Block, R. I., Watkins. (2004). Effect of Acute Marijuana on Cardiovascular Function and Central Nervous System Pharmacokinetics of [15O]Water: Effect in Occasional and Chronic Users. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 44(7), 751-766. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15199080 Room, R., Fischer, B., Hall, W., Lenton, S., Reuter, P. (2010). Cannabis Policy: Moving Beyond Stalemate. Oxford University Press. R. v. Evers, 2011 BCCA 330 (available on CanLII) R. v. Malmo-Levine; R. v. Caine, [2003] 3 SCR 571, 2003 SCC 74 (available on CanLII) R. v. Parker, 2000 CanLII 5762 (ON CA), (available on CanLll) R. v. Readhead, 2008 BCCA 532 (available on CanLII) Statistics Canada. (2015). Prevalence and correlates of marijuana use in Canada, 2012. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2015004/article/14158-eng.htm UNICEF. (2013). Child Well-being in Rich Countries: A comparative overview. Innocenti Report. Retrieved March 1, 2017, from https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/rc11_eng.pdf

George Orwell 1984: Unmasking Totalitarianism Essay -- Literary Analys

The outlook to the future is usually one filled with hope. When failures of the past and present problems collide together, the future is often seen as a place of hope. This mindset was no different in Britain during the mid 20th century, especially in the late 1940’s. During this time, World War II had finally ended, the days of fighting Nazi Germany was behind everyone, but present circumstances were bleak. Britain was still recovering from the effects of World War II and handling the transition of a new socialist democratic government. At the same time, from the east there loomed Stalin’s Soviet Union with its communism government and Totalitarian ruling mindset. Many were oblivious to the facts surrounding communism and saw salvation in it. In Mitzi Brunsdale Student Companion to George Orwell she states that â€Å"Western support for Stalin often took the form of neo-religious adulation†¦all kinds of personal and social inadequacies drove a troubled g eneration into projecting its neuroses on to a perfected proletarian Utiopia† (139). Many in the west were discouraged with present conditions and looked to this apparent Utopia as their answer. On the other hand, George Orwell stood in direct opposition. His resistance against the Totalitarian rule of Stalin was especially expressed in one of his most popular books called 1984, which as Valerie Meyers in Modern Novelist George Orwell says â€Å"brings home to England the experience of countless who suffered in Totalitarian regimes of Eastern Europe† (114). Through his writings, George Orwell was able to make the evils of Totalitarianism real to the ignorant. In 1984, George Orwell exposed three dangerous aspects of Totalitarianism by showing the oppression of the individual's... ...hose who read his book. Even in the future, every reader is given a ever relevant warning and is faced with the reality of the possibility of such a society existing. With technology advancing and many history defining issues arising, the possibility of elements of 1984 coming true seems to become increasingly real. History always repeats itself, and generations tend to forget the lessons of the past. Works Cited Bal, Sant S. George Orwell The Ethical Imagination. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities, 1981. Print. Brunsdale, Mitzi M. Student Companion to George Orwell. Westport: Greenwood, 2000. Print. Meyers, Jeffrey. A Reader's Guide to George Orwell. Totown: Littlefield, Adams &, 1975. Print. Meyers, Valerie. Modern Novelists George Orwell. New York: St. Martin's, 1991. Print. Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four. New York: Penguin Group, 2003. Print.

A Modest Proposal for Euthanasia Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Arg

A Modest Proposal for Euthanasia Euthanasia is a controversy that cannot be resolved from a single court ruling or a single person’s opinion. Many proposals have been suggested based on various studies and surveys. In â€Å"You Say Murder, I Say Euthanasia,† Clair Rayner describes a notable proposal regarding extreme euthanasia cases. The proposal, which has been put into the Science of Museum forum, recommends complex cases to be considered individually. In â€Å"Assisted Suicide Largely Shunned,† the anonymous author offers statistics that oppose the ethics of euthanasia. In â€Å"You Say Murder, I Say Euthanasia,† Rayner commences the article by describing the exhibits of the Science Museum. One exhibit that the author discusses has a personal computer that operates as a euthanasia machine. The machine was given to the museum from the Voluntary Euthanasia Research Foundation of Australia. Many disabled people and euthanasia advocates relate differently to these exhibits presented in the museum. Rayner then introduces her proposal stating that complex cases, sometimes involving facts that are sometimes overlooked by court systems, need to be carefully examined individually (Rayner 31). Her proposal is based on the fact that the number of people who want voluntary euthanasia is small compared to the numbers who do not want treatment for euthanizing purposes. Legislation has offered laws that prohibit euthanasia in many areas but also permit it in other areas. Laws regarding euthanasia are useless when contemplating whether to euthanize a human being due to the fact that every case is unique. Rayner introduces us to the case involving Tony Bland, which serves as a precedent to the proposal. â€Å"When Tony Bland was app... ... Rayner, in his article, proposes a solution that would solve a lot of problems when doctors are confronted with the ethical dilemma of euthanasia. The idea that every case is distinct and needs to be analyzed individually is a noteworthy suggestion. Rayner does a plausible job in outlining the proposal in an orderly fashion. The author in the second article, however, presents a narrow-minded viewpoint that ignores the other side of the issue at hand. The statistics are disorganized and not supported by the author’s own thoughts and ideas. Despite this fact, the article supports the cons of euthanasia by exposing the audience to a number of surprising statistics regarding euthanasia. Works Cited Rayner, Clair. â€Å"You Say Murder, I Say Euthanasia.† New Statesman June 2000: 31 â€Å"Assisted Suicide Largely Shunned.† The Christian Century Dec 2000: 1267

Suffrage Movement during the Progressive Era

During the late 1800's and early 1900's women's lives were consumed with fighting for what they should have always had; equality. This fight for fairness is the main driving force behind the Progressive Era. Women were coming together all over the country in a unified fight for women's rights. This massive change had been silently building up in the background for many years prior to 1900 but it is here that we see the biggest changes. Women moving from the homes and houses to the factories and commercial sites. There are other significant changes taking place as well. Women became much more involved in politics even though they could still not vote in public elections. This change in the thoughts and lives of women is one of the main focus of the 20th century and the reason for our 19th amendment. During the Progressive Era the roles of women were changing dramatically due to a number of reasons, but most importantly to the efforts of clubwomen. In 1890 women founded The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC). This was a major step for women's rights advocates as it established a major political presence in the country. The formation of the GFWC represented the changing roles of women in the political world. Many women felt they were being oppressed and wanted change. â€Å"Violence against women is part of a continuum of sexist power relationships which define our roles in the home, workplace & society. Inequality, poverty & alienation spawn further violence & make women more fearful†¦ which in turn causes them to limit their right to participate fully in city life. † -1988 -â€Å"The Safe City† METRAC, Metro Action on Public Violence Against Women & Children, Toronto. The women of the GFWC rallied to support women all over the country and they fought for equality on almost every political front. The creation of the GFWC started a women's movement towards the clubwoman ideal. They were now beginning to move away from their roles as caregivers and housewives towards more industry oriented positions. Progressive women began to create clubs which supported many different causes such as temperance and better working conditions. The most affluent of these clubs was the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. The WCTU led the way with women's rights and allowed women to voice their fears about home abuse as well as legal rights. Drawing from all over the country the WCTU gained much of its support from the middle-class women of the 1900's. By allowing these women to voice their thoughts and fears these clubs became very powerful tools in the political arena. The WCTU consisted of over 39 different departments dealing with everything from labor restructuring, lobbying, and public affairs, to health, education, and peace. By the 1890's the WCTU had over 150,000 members and over one million by the 20th century. The WCTU was important to white southern women in particular. These southern women were the most need in change due to a common southern idyllic that the woman should be a model of the family and should not be subjected to the harsh world outside the home. This act of keeping the women inside the home all day caused much resentment from the woman and led many women to join the WCTU. These women gradually became active working women and many left their abusive husbands in search of better living standards. Women's lives in the home also changed a great deal. In the 1890's Catharine Beecher began to publicize her ideas on housework. She believed that it was possible to â€Å"professionalize† housework. As the first female to graduate from MIT she held a great deal of authority. Her ideas were received with mild success. She tried to blend technology, housework, and science together to create a better picture of the importance of women. The main result of this change was that it made women realize that they were more than a status symbol. A Major cause of the changing roles in the home was that women found themselves not able to join some new professions. Officially excluded from the politics of men during much of Canada's history†¦ , Canadian women have had their own politics. † â€Å"Who were these women who were willing to sacrifice the relative comforts of home, & the frequently permanent parting from family & friends†¦ most of them must have found their lives enormously changed†¦ but they adapted to new ways of doing things. † -1988. – Prentice, Bourne, Cuthbert Brandt, Light, Mitchinson, Black They were unable to hold even some of the most unwanted jobs such as janitors and delivery persons. Women were also restricted from voting. Their input was unimportant in both national and even local elections and this made them angry. Women could not hold public offices and were, for the most part, restricted from seizing any adequate amount of power. At the time many men believed women should not hold any power and that they were unsuited for work outside the home. This belief was so strong in certain areas that women had even believed it for a time. Soon women began to become educated. Many colleges were beginning to allow women, both black and white, to attend. Reasons include financial stability, public outlook and support, but most importantly the efforts of women like Susan B. Anthony, Jane Addams, Marion Talbot, Mary Church Terrell, and a number of other courageous women. Through the suffrage movement many women were allowed to receive a higher education. Education was originally only for men but women soon fought that tradition and many colleges began to allow women into classes. Women soon began to challenge their places in society as well as their roles and both mothers and as part of the workforce. Because they stood up to the resistance slowly jobs were beginning to open up. There were many visible signs of women's changing roles. In the home they no longer looked after children as much as they used to. They were out getting jobs and didn't have the time to commit themselves to the children's upbringing. They were also very much more involved in politics than ever before. Women wanted a voice and they were willing to fight for it. They did this by forming clubs and joining in many different movements. Many women felt they should become more involved in the community through clubs and politics and many wanted to expand their realm of control. These women had once been situated mostly in the home but were beginning to challenge this idea. Some women liked the idea of clubs and unions because it allowed them to challenge the norm without sacrificing themselves completely. They believed it was necessary for the removal of the age old gender distinctions. The biggest affect that clubs had on women was their ability to bring all the middle-class women together. This was such an amazing feat that it was hard for male politicians to challenge them. Women began to take control of the finances more than they had in the past. They were bringing in income and felt that they should therefore be allowed to have a say in the finances. They were also more educated and as such believed they were capable of taking care of the finances. Another area that women's lives were changing in was that of relationships. At one time women's lives were controlled almost completely by men. The women had little say in anything and could not object to what the husband believed was right. Women were so restricted that they could not speak out even in cases of abuse. Being unable to object to their husbands caused a great deal of resentment and hurt the family's relationship. â€Å"There are two general divisions to this subject of Equal Franchise. Is Woman Suffrage just and right? Is it expedient and desirable? I think an affirmative answer may be taken as granted all round. If it is admitted that Government is a human concern and that woman is just as human as man, all the rest follows. The fact that woman is different from man mentally and morally as well as physically is not an argument against her enfranchisement, but, in a representative system, a conclusive argument for it†¦. No man, without woman's co-operation can make a real home. Look at the conditions: Countries that are nominally free being made the prey of monopoly, privileges and injustice, with such evil fruits as the liquor traffic, white slavery, child labor and abject poverty side by side with unimaginable wealth. Man has been a failure as a housekeeper, and it is high time that he took an equal partner — the natural partner he should have had from the first†¦. The infusion of woman's keener moral perceptions and stronger spiritual ardor into statesmanship is what is needed to meet the perils of the day, and to bring the triumph of the Cause of Peace by securing the triumph of the Cause of Justice. † Woman Suffrage, By J. W. Bengough (1922) http://www. adams. edu/academics/art_letters/hgp/civ/111/5suffragequotes. html This was all beginning to change as women gained a voice and financial independence they also obtained the ability to divorce their husbands and discard earlier beliefs that women were showpieces. Women are persons in matters of pains and penalties, but are not persons in matters of rights and privileges. † (1876 British Common Law ruling). This was overturned by the 18 Oct. 1929 Person's Case. When women won, Nellie McClung said â€Å"Ladies, hang Lord Sankey's picture on the wall of the Community Rest Room with Newton Wesley Rowell's beside it, & let these names & the names of the other Lords of the Judicial Com mittee of the Privy Council be kept in perpetual and grateful remembrance†¦ † The Progressive Era is known for many achievements, but most importantly for how it helped to shape the world we live in today. Women's lives have changed dramatically since the late 1800's. Women were once treated unequally both in the home and in the workplace. They were unrepresented in politics as well. Women had to face many hardships during their fight for equality and much of this fighting began during the Progressive Era (1890-1920). Both in the home and in politics the lives and lifestyles of women have greatly improved. Women who once had no voice now were becoming clubwomen and voting on behalf of their parties. Women who were once confined to the role of housewife could now begin to seek financial stability in jobs such as nursing and textiles. Women's lives were far from equal to that of men but the steps taken during the 1900's ensured that they would forever fight until that uniformity was established. There were many times when women struggled to gain equality, but none as important or as far reaching as the women's rights movement of the Progressive Era.