Managing Diversity Or Work Life Balance Is Important Management Essay Essay Example

Managing Diversity Or Work Life Balance Is Important Management Essay Essay Example Managing Diversity Or Work Life Balance Is Important Management Essay Essay Managing Diversity Or Work Life Balance Is Important Management Essay Essay Recently, WLB ( Work-life Balance ) has been in demand for proper solutions on the employee s side. Consequently, WLB has become a really hot subject debated worldwide in council chambers and authorities halls today. It is being focused as one of the most of import issues that human resource professionals are paying attending pull offing it. The importance of pull offing WLB has been increasing over the past 2 decennaries ( De Bruin A ; Dupuis, 2004 ) . The several alterations have occurred in some countries sing to this issue. First of wholly, occupations are more complex and employees are having more force per unit area to accomplish the expected public presentation within the shorter timeframe and fewer resources ( Hosie, Forster A ; Servatos, 2004 ) . Second, the demographic factors of the labor force have affected the alterations of human resource direction, such as gender, ethnicity, double calling twosomes, faith, and multi-generational workplaces. Finally, the nature of emp loyment contract requires the organisations to pull off their employee s public assistance, occupation satisfaction, and stress more efficaciously ( Greenhaus A ; Powell, 2006 ) . Regardless to the above statement, Purcell ( 2002 ) has mentioned that organisational involvement towards WLB direction has originated from grounds that there is an obvious linkage between steadfast public presentation and the manner the house manages people. This implies the chances of holding good WLB direction might be the future beginning of competitory advantage. However, it is non easy to originate the good WLB direction plan as it needs to incorporate employees work efficaciously and understate occupation dissatisfactions or any other struggles ( De Bruin et Al, 2004 ) . To accomplish this, many western organisations have nevertheless adopted a alone set of policies, for case, on-site babys room, resting one-fourth, and fittingness Centre. This provides employees chances to to the full execute their assigned plants, at the same clip, pull off their personal lives efficaciously. The Current Issues Knowing that WLB direction is a important issue for every organisation, there is a considerable statement on the effectivity of WLB policies in conveying snap and extinguishing occupation dissatisfaction in the modern workplace ( Kirrane A ; Buckley, 2004 ) . WLB literature, that has served its theoretical and practical utility, is so identified. Buzzanell et Al, ( 2005 ) has farther suggested that the WLB by and large represents the struggles in functions for married, professional, and managerial adult females. Meanwhile, other demographics are seldom referred by these struggles. Furthermore, most organisations have inability to clearly explicate the interaction of work and non-work functions that impact employees working-life, emphasis and occupation satisfaction, for case. Elloy and Smith ( 2004 ) has stated that because non-working functions of each employee are inherently ill-defined and complicated, administrations are so non capable to understand the proper manner to respond that impacts each person. Spinks ( 2004 ) besides added that administrations, nevertheless, could be unwilling to understand their employees and have alternatively created a one-size-fits-all policy refering that it merely enabled work force to work longer instead than back up their of import non-work functions. However, the inadequacy of current WLB policy has been emphasized by the survey of Kiger ( 2005 ) which revealed that the engagement rate in available WLB plans is really less than 2 % . This really low figure is explained by Dex and Smith ( 2002 ) that there are two major factors taking this low figure. The first is the equality feeling. As legion employees describing that they wish non to be a particular instance inquiring for particular intervention. In add-on to this, the paper of Water et Al ( 2006 ) besides supported that the workplace civilization reduced the willingness of Australian university staff to entree WLB policy options. The 2nd is because the uneffective WLB as it has been originated from one size tantrum all policy. Therefore, it could non present satisfaction to employees and could non be practical in world. Consequently, administrations, that do non analyze more on WLB attack, are increasing issues in attractive force and keeping of employees. The research has found that coevals X and Y have placed higher importance on WLB than old coevalss. They could be attracted and retained longer in the house that provides flexibleness in conformity with single demands. As similar to the paper of Beck et Al ( 2005 ) , it shows an increase of adult females directors who are willing to go forth house and go adviser as it provides them more control on WLB. As a consequence, the WLB literature, otherwise, revealed the restriction of its ability to supply a utile model for both in theoretical and practical strategy ( Hyman et al, 2004 ) . Despite its name, the WLB literature remains refering on work-family border and fails to correctly discover the scope of work and non-roles which affect an person s satisfaction. To suppress these issues, Elloy et Al ( 2003 ) suggests that an effectual conceptualisation of the WLB requires a holistic attack to HR direction, which involves a better consciousness of the worker s day-to-day activities instead than merely concern on their on the job hr. Its design and execution should follow the following four standards. First of wholly, it must take chiefly on the integrating of all human resource activities with the house s vision, ends and strategic planning. This would convey consistence between work force s life context and organisational civilization. Second, the execution of policies must make a set of internal consistence of employment scheme supplying flexibleness, quality, and committedness as a milepost of the WLB s construct. Third, the importance of human resources must be considered every bit good as the demand to prosecute in patterns. Both would reflect the apprehension of the WLB construct. Therefore, human resource attack is indispensable and is the cardinal to the connexion between WLB aim and the success. Finally, the behaviour of the line directors in employees position should be taken into history as it affects the success of WLB s policies, such as acknowledgment by employees that their higher-ups are committed to the accomplishment of a meaningful. In decision, the point, which organisation is capable to back up the accomplishment and benefits associated with it, depends on two major concerns. The method that the WLB has been identified and formalized within human resource scheme and the manner the managerial people react to workforce s petitions for WLB demand sing to single demand. For the formalisation, houses should be worn of the grade to which WLB is being implemented, whether it has been regarded as a right, a right to bespeak, or as a affair of direction judgement. In footings of managerial responses, the organisation is required to do a determination either to implement a difficult human resource scheme or a commitment attack towards the petition for the needful WLB policies. It is the connexion between company s civilization in rites and patterns are modeled by organisational leaders that set the inclination for employees responses to WLB policies. The achievement of a utile WLB policies construct has basically faile d in Australia with the given issues discussed above. The nexus between organisational public presentation and diverseness or work-life balance How diverseness or work-life balance is linked with other Human Resource Management constructs such as preparation and development, public presentation direction and/or enlisting As the effectivity of WLB direction requires the comprehensive acknowledgment from organisation sing the non-work functions which impact employee s working-lives, irrespective whatever has been implemented in WLB in recent old ages, there is still deficient larning theoretical account that could convey existent practical and effectual WLB policies to the organisation in footings of definition and pattern. With the purpose to research the modern-day WLB s boundaries, the organisational function theory position has been picked up to the acceptance. It is suggested that the effectual direction of this stray impact could be done by holding human resource directors audit WLB impact and see it as portion of occupation rating procedure. Interestingly, to province these WLB issues, there are two strategic options affecting in cardinal human resource policies, particularly, in the occupation analysis, occupation design, and public presentation direction procedure. Chiefly, the execution of a WLB impact audit system must be taken as portion of occupation analysis map. Traditionally, the occupation analysis map serves to depict each place within an administration in footings of its assignments, duties, and concatenation of bid. The demand to finish the WLB construct is a concentration on the size of occupation, occupation s strength, and the grade that the work impacts on each single life via interfering communicating system, nomadic phones and e-mail engineering, for case. Despite the fact that the focal point on proficient features has served as a footing for specifying a place facet, it has been less successful in back uping a realistic occupation analysis sing to the occupation s consequence as commended in bing hum an resource literature ( Buda et al, 2003 ) . Therefore, to do the better occupation analysis, the hearing of WLB impact must try to sketch in what manner each occupation s place influences each employee s life and supply constructive footing for apprehension of the place s demands. Precisely, the audit focuses on both present places and new places yet to be filled. Particularly, it is recommended that human resource directors implement a proactive attitude in pull offing their current and prospective work force s outlooks. Therefore, they could finally near their functions in doing effectual WLB direction. Besides, the 2nd strategic option is to absorb the consequences of the WLB impact s audit into the go oning occupation rating map. This would put primary duty for the effectual execution of WLB ( at the single employee degree ) in the custodies of their line director. Line directors would so be better able to discourse the impact of executing the responsibilities on WLB and visa-versa straight with each employee. For this to be given appropriate prominence, the cardinal public presentation index for directors would be their attack and effectivity in back uping the employee s WLB. A cardinal focal point is for administrations to take a strategic attack to taking the barriers and perceived deterrences for employees to take up WLB options ( Waters A ; Bardoel, 2006 ) . At the operational degree, communicating within workgroups and single director s attitudes are affairs for attending. The possible benefit of the Impact Audit is that by leveraging the positional outlooks in the Position Description the administration is able to increase the likeliness that the role-taking and role-consensus premises are being met, in bend cut downing the likeliness of role-conflict. The deductions of a Work-Life Balance Impact Audit are potentially quadruple. First, it offers the administration an chance to better their enlisting value proposition by holding a plan in topographic point to avoid the dysfunctional effects of role-conflict. Second, it allows the administration to gain clip and cost nest eggs by leting possible campaigners to self-select out of the enlisting procedure should they be unwilling to follow the work-roles required of a vacant place. Third, it provides a structured mechanism through its usage in the public presentation direction procedure for the monitoring of the degree of effectivity of WLB execution for single employees. Fourthly, the execution of such an audit requires look intoing the strategic congruity between WLB and corporate scheme, the impact of enacted civilization on the execution of a scope of HR policy countries and obtaining feedback from employees ( and prospective employees ) on the construction and content of WLB and related constabularies. It raises the possibility of increased flexibleness of HR policies to provide for greater diverseness ( more single ) in employee outlooks of workplace flexibleness that is more decently described as life and work instead than the current prevailing focal point on household friendly . Practical ( existent universe ) illustrations During the sixtiess and 1970s, employers considered work-life chiefly an issue for working female parents who struggled with the demands of their occupations and raising kids. Throughout this period and into the mid-1980s, the U. S. authorities had the major impact in the field, as reflected by the Presidential Conference on Families, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, and the Quality of Employment Survey. During the 1980s, acknowledging the value and demands of their adult females subscribers, open uping organisations such as Merck, Deloitte A ; Touche, and IBM began to alter their internal workplace policies, processs, and benefits. The alterations included pregnancy leave, employee aid plans ( EAPs ) , flextime, home-based work, and child-care referral. During the 1980s work forces besides began voicing work-life concerns. By the terminal of the decennary, work-life balance was seen as more than merely a adult females s issue, impacting work forces, households, organisations and civilizations. The 1990s solidified the acknowledgment of work-life balance as a critical issue for everyone adult females, work forces, parents and non-parents, singles, and twosomes. This turning consciousness of the cardinal importance of the issue resulted in major growing in attempted work-life solutions during this decennary. Numerous surveies showed that the coevalss from babe boomers to new college alumnuss were doing occupation picks based on their ain work-life issues and employers civilizations. Unfortunately, although companies were following family-friendly policies, employees and directors were non implementing them. Many of the policies put into topographic point in the eightiess failed to hold a important impact on most directors and employees real-world work-life-balance consequences. Americans still reported experiencing even more overworked and out of touch with their non-work lives much of the clip. During the first old ages of the 21st century, the dissatisfactory consequences made human resource and work-life professionals every bit good as executives at all degrees take stock. Karol Rose, writer of the shortly to be published book Work Life Strategies, remarks on these tendencies in Fortune Magazine s 3rd one-year work-life particular characteristic included in the October 2005 issue. She noted that the Work-Life Leadership Council of the Conference Board, a assemblage of high-ranking corporate HR and work-life professionals, drew these decisions on looking back over the last decennary of attempts. Among their concerns were: aˆ? Work-life concern instances have non achieved their intended consequence.

Car-Wreck Compounds

Car-Wreck Compounds Car-Wreck Compounds Car-Wreck Compounds By Mark Nichol You see them everyday, whenever you login to a Web site or rollover an ad: what should be open compounds suffering from the compositional equivalent of a roadway rear-ender. The error of writing â€Å"everyday† (an adjective meaning â€Å"ordinary†) when you mean â€Å"every day† (synonymous with â€Å"each day†) has already been covered in another post, but this mistake is common with verbs, too. When you go to a Web site and type your username and password, you are logging in, so you should style the verb â€Å"log in† similar to the verb phrase â€Å"check in.† By the same token, when you glide your cursor over an online ad to activate it, you’re rolling over it, so the phrase is written â€Å"roll over.† (Think about it: When you stumble to avoid a feline on a beeline, you don’t fallover.) Oooh! Oooh! Oooh! Yes, I see you there in the front row, wildly waving your upraised hand. I know what you’re going to say: â€Å"But we see them like that all the time!† That’s why I call them viral car-wreck compounds: Back when the Internet was young, someone unfamiliar with the niceties of verb phrases, someone perhaps more at ease with programming languages than the magnificent mess we call English, once developed a Web site that directed visitors to â€Å"login.† More recently, when the first interactive ad was enabled, a programmer incorrectly typed the command â€Å"rollover.† But wait – does this mean that â€Å"login† and â€Å"rollover† aren’t real words? Sure they are they’re nouns. Your username and password comprise your login, and your cursor’s ad-surfing motion is a rollover. They’re equivalent in structure to the two other closed compounds I used in the sentence preceding this one. Then, others saw the train-wreck treatments but reiterated them, mistaking the labels â€Å"login† and â€Å"rollover† for the directives â€Å"log in† and â€Å"roll over† without recognizing the mistake, and the clunky compounds were unwittingly compounded. (That’s the very definition of a virus a self-replicating error.) But that magnificent mess we call English changes its rules all the time, you persist. Yes, it does. But don’t capitulate before it’s time. That’s why we have manuals of best practices like â€Å"Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary† and â€Å"The Chicago Manual of Style.† (The former cue gritting teeth defends the validity of â€Å"alright,† for example, but has resisted conceding to â€Å"alot.†) For the sake of professional pride, we must agree to codified consistency until the walls are breached. For my part, you’ll have to roll over my dead body (after, of course, you log in). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Passed vs Past15 Great Word GamesShore It Up

Critical Review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical Review - Assignment Example This method is accepted by both governmental and social organizations to meet the needs of the people so that groups of different linguistic range have the same chance to partake in their government and to get services from their government. Language planning preferences usually endeavor to convene these requirements by sinking linguistic variety, where a distinct language is acknowledged as a national language and a single language is affirmed ‘standard’ to encourage linguistic unity in a nation where different languages exist (David, 1988). Considering that languages are organic and active, similar to the societies that give birth to them, it is natural that they contribute to the destiny of the societies of which they form a part. A social order that is healthy with the resources to grow economically, socially, and culturally as well gives rise to a growing language, the same as is obvious in the spread of English and the supremacy of the United States in the worldwide financial system and world dealings. Several people feature the spread of English to a continued existence of most suitable, a normal and accepted course of development. They dispute that contact linking two cultures typically cause the subordination and at times destruction of the weaker culture and their language. Why should one be concerned about that? In an expressive reply, Diamond (1993) says that all must have concern regarding the destiny of languages because of the relation linking language and culture. He explains that when a language is lost, much more than the sounds and structure of that language are gone. Every language is inextricably attached with an exceptional outlook of the world, context, and literature, despite the literature is written or not. He further states that a language is the culmination of thousands of years of a people’s knowledge and wisdom. Also, it is the medium that spread and be responsible for that

Advanced Financial Accounting Assignment - Accounting by employers for Essay

Advanced Financial Accounting Assignment - Accounting by employers for employees' retirement benefits - Essay Example Actual returns on plan assets are reduced from this pension cost for purpose of its recognition on income statement. SSAP 24 requires that pension cost is the long term funding costs that is evaluated by actuaries and should be spread over the total period in order to smoothen the cost from year to year. Similarly actuary evaluated scheme surpluses are also spread out over the total period and the net charge of each year is expressed as percentage of payroll. On the other hand the approach under FRS 17 emphasis that ‘what is shown as the cost in the profit and loss account is the cost of buying one year’s benefits for the scheme members i.e., the benefit accrued during the current accounting period.’(Standard Life, page 4)1 SSAP 24 requires that a consistent valuation method be used to calculate best estimate of pension cost, and a regular and standard contribution rate is computed to meet the estimated pension costs. Surplus or deficits of pension costs are spread out over remaining working lifetime of current memberships. But SSAP 24 does not specify any amortization method. With the result there were prepayments on balance sheets when the company was in deficit and provisions when the company was in surplus. Accordingly a number of dubious assets and liabilities used to be created on application of this standard rate. Balance sheet was therefore not a fair representation of assets and liabilities under the pension plan. With implementation of FRS 17 ‘this spreading or accrual based approach was abandoned and instead proper recording of balance sheet assets and liabilities has become the focus of revised accounting standard.’(Robert Kirk, page 237)2 Every year the actual returns on plan assets are compared with the expected returns on plan assets. The expected return is generally equal to the fair value of the plan assets at the beginning of the period multiplied by the expected

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony?

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony? This essays attempts to reach a conclusion regarding eyewitness testimonies and the extent of its reliability. This was done by identifying factors in three different processes stages. The acquisition stage is the period where the witness experiences the event. The retention stage is the period between the time the event ends and the time the witness are asked for a recount or questioned about the event. The retrieval stage is the period where the witness is providing information from their recall. During the acquisition stage, research regarding exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event (for example, time), violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress was analysed. During the retention stage, research regarding post-event information, introduction of conflicting information and introduction of misleading information was analysed. During the retrieval stage, research regarding method of questioning, leading questions and a case study of an actual event was analysed. Experiments and case studies regarding these factors were then evaluated to weigh the impact that it had on eyewitness testimony. In conclusion, it was found that experiments regarding eyewitness testimony hold little evidence to support its reliability but there are also some findings that dispute this. Thus, it was concluded that it is reliable only to a small extent though it can be highly accurate under certain conditions. Applications of this conclusion includes jurors being more aware of the factors regarding eyewitness testimony and taking into account when deciding on a verdict especially if the main evidence is based solely on eyewitness recounts. Word Count: 252 words Introduction Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account given by an individual who has experienced an event, typically of a crime. Eyewitness testimony relies heavily on the capability of the individuals to accurately recount the event. In a trial, the jury is most often persuaded due to the statement(s) of the witnesses. Also, in cases where little material evidence can be collected, eyewitnesses are the focus for reaching a verdict. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible memory which can be influenced by a variety of factors, it should not be depended upon. The contention of this essay is to identify and evaluate the extent of accuracy of this claim by identifying and evaluating factors that affect memory and by reviewing experiments and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. Memory and thus eye-witness reliability has become an issue of importance due to the high percentage of errors in identifying and prosecuting accused individuals. Thus, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies and impact on trials should be reviewed. Memory is defined as a kind of repository in which facts (information) may be retained over some period of time (Loftus, 1979). According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage (1971), memory is made up of three different types of information stores, each with different duration, capacity and function. The first is Sensory Memory. This type of store lasts for the spilt second when individuals collect information from their sensory systems and preserves information in its original sensory form. The sense organs are limited in their ability to store information about the world in an unprocessed way for more than a second. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by attention for further memory processing into the next type of memory store. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The next memory store is Short-term memory allows individuals to retain information long enough to be used and lasts approximately between 15 to 30 s econds. Miller (1956, cited in Weiten, 2005) proposed that Short-term Memory had a capacity of about 7 chunks of information. If certain actions are carried out, the information will be transferred to the last type of memory store, Long-term Memory. Long-term Memory provides retention of information which can last between minutes to a lifetime and has a limitless capacity. The process of information deposited in the short-term and long-term memory store is called retention. Information is constantly being transferred between these stores. When witnesses are asked to give recount of what they witnessed, information is taken from the long-term memory store and this process is called retrieval. Events during these three processes may affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. During the acquisition process information may not have been perceived in the first place, information may be forgotten or interfered during the retention process or information may be inaccessible during questioning or during the retrieval process. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Acquisition Process During the acquisition process, there are a number of factors that can affect an eyewitness report of an event such as exposure time or stress. This can be divided into event factors and witness factors. This section of the essay will evaluate the effect of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Exposure time to the event or object of focus is an event factor. Laughery et al (1971, cited in Loftus, 1979) tested subjects on their recall based on the exposure time to a picture, showed one at a time of different positions of a human face. Two Caucasian male target faces were used, one with fair-colored hair and complexion with glasses and another with a darker-colored hair and complexion without glasses. The independent variable is the time the subjects viewed the pictures, which ranged from ten seconds to thirty-two seconds. The subjects were them asked, approximately eight minutes after exposure to identify the target within a series of 150 slides of human faces. The dependant variable is the accuracy of the subjects recall. Fifty-eight percentof the subjects who viewed the pictures for thirty-two seconds correctly identified the target but only forty-seven percent of the subjects who viewed the pictures for ten seconds correctly identified the target. This suggests that the more time a witness has to view the target, the more accurate their recall will be. This research is significant as it is very scientific and precisely tested a specific variable that affects memory and recall. Although this is so, it was also conducted in an artificial environment and thus, has low ecological validity. The research may also contain cultural and gender bias as it only tested for Caucasian males as the target. Thus, its application to targets of different cultures or gender is questionable. Estimating factors such as time, speed or distance is often asked of eyewitnesses. This involves perceiving the event and accurately inferring information from it. Marshalls (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) experiment tested subjects estimation of time. Four hundred and ninety-one subjects watched a forty-two second film and a week after they had given their written and oral reports of the event, they were questioned as to the duration of the event. On average, subjects gave an estimate of about ninety seconds. The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Although the results are significant, the study was conducted in a controlled environment which gives it little ecological validity. To further assess the accuracy of this study, an additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. (1975, cited in Loftus, 1979)s study on the effects if eyewitness testimony in a real situation by staging an attack where a student attacked a professor in front of 141 witnesses. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the actual time. This study supports Marshalls study which shows that there is a tendency for witnesses to overestimate the duration in an event. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the categorization of the action. Another event factor is the violence of the event. A research done by Clifford and Scott (1978, cited in Loftus, 1979) investigated the ability of eyewitnesses to perceive violent and non-violent events. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and women watched either one of two tapes. In the non-violent version, the characters were involved in a verbal exchange and weak restraining movements. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. In an effort to be even, the start and end of the tapes were manipulated to be identical. It was found that regardless of gender, the level of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. It is inferred that this is due to the greater amount of stress that is produced in response to the violent event. This shows that eyewitness testimony of a violent event should be considered with the possibility of a higher rate of inaccuracy. Though the results are significant due to the hi gh reliability of the scientific method used, it also lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment where witnesses do not actually experience the event. An event factor that is linked to the witness factor, stress, is weapon focus. Easterbrook (1959) found that under high stress, individuals tend to concentrate more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. Weapon focus is where a crime victim is faced with an assailant who is brandishing a weapon. This rises the stress level of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will have trouble recollecting other factors such as the assailants features. Loftus et al (1987) tested this with an experiment where thirty-six students were showed a series of slides which showed one of two scenarios at a fast food restaurant. Half the subjects saw a customer pointing a gun at the cashier while the other half, the control group saw a customer handing the cashier a check. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. It was found that the level of accuracy of the weapon group was fifty-six percent while the level of accuracy for the control group was sixty-seven percent. As the results show that the accuracy level of the weapon group is lower than the control group, this is highly significant in showing that eye-witnesses acquisition process might be seriously hampered by the presence of a weapon. The results of the experiment are highly valid as it was conducted in a controlled environment which allowed a direct cause and effect outcome. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an actual witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity. During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. This refers to the level of stress or fear that a witness experiences which may influence their perception during the acquisition process of the event. A simulated case study done by Berkun (1962, cited in Loftus, 1979) placed army recruits in a stressful situation. They were isolated with the exception of a telephone link. Then, they were told that they were in danger to induce anxiety and were required to repair a broken radio by following a series of complicated instructions. It was found that the high level of anxiety impaired performance of the subjects. As this case study was conducted during a period of different ethical standards than today, there are ethical implications to be considered. Nevertheless, the results of this case study significantly support the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908, cited in Green) which states that emotional arousal facilitates learning and performance up to a point after which t here is a decrement. This can be applied to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Their senses may be stimulated but after a point, their acquisition process will be negatively affected. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the general population, it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retention Process Eye-witnesses are being tested on their retention of information from their Long-term Memory. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. This section of the essay will focus on the numerous researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur. After an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. An experiment was conducted by Loftus (1975) on one hundred and fifty participants. They were showed a film of a car crash where a car failed to stop at a stop sign and turned right to enter traffic, causing a five-car collision. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. All other questions were the same. The independent variable here is the first question and the dependant variable is the last question which asked participants if they remembered seeing a stop sign. Loftus found that there was a higher percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, fifty-three percent and thirty-five percent respectively. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. The results are highly significant as it was calculated using precise results with a specific variable tested. It can be argued that the experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment but this allowed a specific variable to be tested which would have been impossible with a case study. As demonstrated by this experiment, eye-witnesses memory may be influenced by post-event information that they receive and thus, the more information that the witness is exposed to after the event, the higher the chance that their memory might be compromised. A modification to the previous variable is the question as to what happens when a witness learns new information which is different from what they experienced. Loftus (1975) conducted an experiment where forty participants were shown a three-minute video which involved a group of eight demonstrators noisily interrupting a lecture. The participants then had to answer a series of twenty questions. All the questions for the participants were identical except for one. Half of the participants were asked, Was the leader of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? and the other half were asked, Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? All questions had to be answered with a yes or no. A week later, participants had to answer another set of questions. The critical question was How many demonstrators did you see enter the classroom? It was found that participants who previously answered the question with the word twelve reported an average of 8.9 demonstrators while the other half reported an average of 6.4 demonstrators. It can be argued that this experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment and that participants only viewed the event and did not actually witness it. The results may not be fully applicable to the general population. Although this is so, the controlled environment showed a direct cause and effect of a specific variable. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information. Similar to the experiment above is an experiment conducted by Loftus and Zanni (1975, cited in Hill, 1998) which was a modification of the original Loftus and Palmer research. The aim of the experiment was to investigate the effect of adding post event information on memory. Participants were shown a film of a car accident after which they had to answer a series of questions. Half of the participants were required to answer, Did you see the broken headlight which implied that there was a broken headlight while the other half were asked, Did you see a broken headlight which only required participants to recall if it was there. It was found that half of the participants, who were asked using the word the, incorrectly reported seeing a broken headlight. As most of the other variables were controlled in the experiment, and only a specific variable was changed, the results signify that memory can be modified by post event information. It can be argued that the participants did not experie nce the incident and thus the experiment lacks ecological validity when applied to actual witnesses but as a specific variable was examined, it can be concluded that the cause and effect was to a large extent connected. This experiment shows that eyewitnesses may be influenced by post event information which may negatively affect their account. McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. After watching a series of slides depicting an event, participants received a narrative of the event. Participants in the mislead condition will receive a narration with receive the narrative with misleading information about a detail of the event, a hammer was referred to as a screwdriver instead while the control group werent provided details of the specific event. Participants then had to answer a series of questions about the event. The critical question concerning the tool had the original item as an option (hammer) and a new item (wrench). It was found that accuracy for the control group was seventy-five percent and seventy-two percent for the mislead condition group. The fact that there was little difference between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This experiment suppor ts the validity of eyewitness testimony and due to the controlled setting; the results are highly valid though it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retrieval Process Most evidence from eyewitnesses are a result of their accounts of the event. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the techniques of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. This is to evaluate the extent of influence of such techniques on the reliability of eyewitness accounts and in relation, memory. The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). Lipton conducted an experiment where participants watched a film of a murder in a courtroom setting. He found that unstructured testimony which allowed free recall resulted in ninety-one percent accuracy. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. These results show that the type of questioning that the witness is subjected to affects the accuracy of their recount. When applied to trial testimonies, jurors should take into account the type of questioning to predict or get an idea of the level of accuracy of the testimony. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high. Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. Fourty-five participants were separated into seven groups and each group watched a video of traffic accidents. The videos lasted from five to thirty seconds. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. The independent variable is the question About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. The word hit is replaced with the words smashed, contacted, bumped and collided for different groups. The participants answer as to the estimate of the cars speed is the dependant variable. Loftus and Palmer found that the mean estimate of speed for more aggressive words such as smashed is higher than less aggressive words such as contacted. The results are highly significant, p Contending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study of a real life event. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palmers (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted robbery in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. It was found that there was a very high level of similarity between the accounts given by the witnesses, the accounts did not alter in response to leading questions and that the witnesses were able to recall the event in detail. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. These results are different to Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998). The eye witnesses did not alter their accounts greatly in response to leading questions. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Although this may be true, Yuille and Cutshalls case study was of an event t hat was relatively traumatic event and was viewed in ideal conditions. Most incidents do not mirror this setting. Also, it was an investigation of only one case study. Hence, the application of these findings is debatable when applied to general eye witness testimonies. Conclusion This essay evaluated the extent of accuracy of the claim that eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated. Research concerning the acquisition process such as exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event, for example, time, violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress level during the event was analysed. Results point to a correlation of high levels of inaccuracy when more traumatic factors are included in the event. This is also reflected in research concerning the retention process and the retrieval process although there is some evidence that supports the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Overall analysis criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect relationship between specific variables tested. Case studies were found to be very specific with regards to certain factors, which leads to a debate about their general application. Since experiments are only replications of real-life events, it cant be fully taken as the actual process . This may have some influence on the results obtained as it can be argued that the participants are not really experiencing the event, thus essential factors like, atmosphere, or even interest in the event may be compromised. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability. As indicated by the numerous researches on different factors during the process of collecting, processing and retrieving information from memory, eye witness testimony is reliable only to a small extent. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly imperfect far outweighs it. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study. This suggests that although eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, under certain conditions, it is highly accurate. Implications for application of the analysis in this essay could include jurors being more wary of eyewitness testimony and the conditions relating to it when deciding upon a verdict. Further research could include more case studies to increase the ecological validity of the theories produced by experiments analysed in this essay. References Atkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Short-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford University Easterbrook J. A. (1959), The Effect of Emotion on Cue Utilisation and the Organisation of Behaviour, Psychological Review, Vol 66(3), 183-201 Green, C. D, (n.d.) Classics in the History of Psychology Yerkes and Dodson (1908), Toronto, Ontario, York University, Retrieved from psychclassics.yorka.ca: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/Law/ Hill, G. (1998), Oxford Revision Guides, AS A Level Psychology, New York, Oxford University Press Loftus, E. F; Loftus, G. R; Messo, J. (1987), Some facts about Weapon Focus, Law and Human Behaviour, Vol 11(1), 55-62 Loftus, E. F. (1975), Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Repost, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 7, 550-572, University of Washington Loftus E. F. (1979), Eyewitness Testimony, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, USA, Harvard University Press Yullie J. C. Cutshall J. L. (1986), A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime, Journal of Applied Psychology, Volume 71(2), May 1986, 291-301 Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology: Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc. Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research: System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Volume 36, No. 12, 1547-1557, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Practical Proposal

Should Minnesota’s County Road Commissions Take on More Responsibility? Katherine Monrowe ENG 101b Professor B. Hatchett November 10, 2008 November 8, 2008 Mr. Walter Hooper Chairman of T. R. County Road Commission 1881 Labree Ave. Thief River Falls, MN 56701 Dear Mr. Hooper, Enclosed is my proposal that the T. R. County Road Commission begin to plow and/or sand the main business commuter roads more frequently after and during inclement weather. During the past couple of years, the road commission has been too ill prepared to deal with the winter weather, and the lack of preparedness has caused many unfortunate accidents.My proposal would provide concerned Thief River Falls residents with a renewed sense of security. I believe that if the road commission were to increase the amount of times that the roads are plowed during and after winter weather, residents would feel more loyalty and respect towards those who work for our county, and it would help residents to have a safer c ommute to their jobs and their homes. Thank you for taking the time to read and consider this proposal. Sincerely, Katherine Monrowe Should Minnesota’s County Road Commissions Take on More Responsibility? The winters in Northern Minnesota are harsh, cold, and dangerous.The average snowfall for the state falls between 30 and 38 inches per year. Within the past five years, the temperatures have been known to fluctuate greatly; from warmer temperatures during the day, to below freezing through the night. These temperature changes can cause dangerous road conditions, such as black ice, which can harmful or even deadly. Along with the weather changes, the county road commissions throughout Minnesota have been making changes as well; they have, significantly, cut back on the amount of time and effort that they spend plowing, sanding, and/or salting the roads.These cut backs may seem minor, but they are resulting in many unnecessary accidents and less than desirable driving conditio ns. This forces residents to ask the question, should Minnesota’s country road commissions take on more responsibility? I believe that the best solution to this problem would be to designate specific times of the day, during the winter months, to plowing/sanding/salting, and require that more attention be paid to the roads when the weather conditions are dangerous.I think that if the residents of Thief River County, and potentially the entire of state Michigan, were provided with a safer commute, they would feel more loyalty and respect towards those who work for our county. After the state of Minnesota implemented many budget cuts, funding was cut too many important organizations, one being the county road commissions. Our government officials fail to recognize all that entails these budget cuts. Not only have the driving conditions suffered, but parking lot conditions have also.The handicap parking spaces are completely disregarded, causing handicapped and elderly citizens to risk injury by parking or walking through snow and ice (Schneider, 2001). Not only are those who drive themselves affected by the winter road conditions, but those who utilize public transportation are affected as well. If the road commission is slow to take care of roads, then public transportation (e. g. buses, taxis, etc†¦) will be late to pick up its passengers. This, in turn, will make its passengers late for work and may cause them to lose their jobs.Also, some may argue that there is always a risk while driving, and more time spent taking care of the roads during the winter will not lessen the risk. However, M. Peden states, â€Å"While in practical terms it may not be possible completely to eliminate all risk, it is possible to reduce the exposure to risk of severe injury and to minimize its intensity and consequences (2004). † Peden’s quote states exactly the point that I am trying to prove. I understand that the risk will not be completely taken away; however, the hances can be significantly reduced if the roads are plowed and sanded. It is clear to see that the budget cuts are more of a risk, and the increase in accidents and the need for tow trucks have cost the state even more money. Marina Fulton, of Kingston, has a thirty-minute commute to her office and when the weather is at its worse, Fulton has to leave an extra hour early just to make it to work on time (2008). Obviously, the winters of Northern Minnesota are going to be dangerous, even though the road conditions could be improved.However, if the roads were properly taken care of, residents would have more time to get to their jobs and feel safer on their way. I believe that if the T. R. county road commission were to implement the suggestions in this proposal in January of 2009, they’d be able to get a â€Å"head start† on the months in which winter is its harshest. Linda Boonstrand, of Thief River, stated â€Å"I would definitely feel safer driving wit h my two young daughters if the road commission were to take care of the roads more thoroughly (2008). With the advances in technology that our country is continuing to make, road commissions should be able to find out when inclement weather in on its way and be prepared to take care of the roads (Committee on Weather Research for Transportation, 2004). In conclusion, I am calling upon my county to spend more time taking care of the roads during the winter months, especially more during inclement weather. I believe that the extra time spent clearing/sanding/salting the roads throughout the winter will result in a safer and happier community.Thank you for taking the time to review and consider this proposal. I look forward to hearing from you. Works Cited Boonstrand, L. (December 6, 2008) Personal interview. Committee on Weather Research for Surface Transportation. (2004). Where the weather meets the road: a research agenda for improving road weather services. Washington, DC: Nationa l Academies Press. Retrieved December, 6, 2008, from NetLibrary Database. Downs, A. (2004). Still stuck in traffic: coping with peak-hour traffic congestion. Washington, D. C. Brookings Institution Press.Retrieved December, 6, 2008, from NetLibrary database.. Fulton, M. (December 5, 2008) Personal interview. King, K. (2002, May 23). New budget calls for slight trims in city taxes, staff – Manager Holt says the city’s â€Å"lean operation† continues. The Grand Rapids Press Online. Retrieved on December, 7, 2008, from Newsbank database. Peden, M. M. (2004). World report on road traffic injury prevention. Geneva WHO. Retrieved December, 6, 2008, from NetLibrary database. Schneider, J. (2001, January 29). Tight spot. The Lansing State Journal Online. Retrieved on December, 10, 2008, from Newsbank database.

African War History - 975 Words

â€Å"It isnt true, in any conventional meaning of the term, that the United States or its NATO partners invaded Afghanistan† –Terry Glavin, a Canadian author. (brainyquote.com) Throughout history Canada has been viewed as a strong beacon of hope, security, and support by the world. Essentially, NATO also known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created for the mutual protection of all members since 1949; this organization protects these countries from communism and the Warsaw pact to create a better world for billions to live in. It was founded by 12 nations, and has expanded to 29. Canada had helped guide them through various procedures and operations that are very significant in todays world and Canada’s growth as a nation.†¦show more content†¦Also, they donated a variety of items including: school supplies, toys, and clothing, furnaces, bedding, and first aid kits with modern medication. Initially, on September, 11/ 2001 a total of 2, 9 77 people were killed in the terrorist attacks, causing there to be mass shock and panic throughout the nations of NATO. Canada was one of the first nations to respond to the emergency call; article 5 of the treaty was set into motion calling partner nations to help America. This article states that member countries must defend each other and this later led to Canada’s assistance against the attacks. To exemplify, more than 224 flights were diverted to NAV Canada to avoid more â€Å"airliner projectiles†; these flights were scattered all over Canada, ranging from 47 planes in Halifax, to 8, 500 passengers landing in Vancouver (thecanadianencyclopedia.ca). Additionally, many people were brought in, from America to Canada after the incident along with the stranded passengers; this proved difficult for the displaced population, and they were fit into homes with Canadian citizens, and shared necessities. To Exemplify, Shirley Brook Jones was landed Lewisporte, Newfoundland , six days later when they returned home Shirley decided she would like to start a scholarship with the other passengers for the local students as a sign of gratitude for the service, and hospitality. Moreover, on the date of 9/11 theShow MoreRelatedThe Civil War And African American History Essay1828 Words   |  8 PagesIn Southern American history, the focus tends to remain on events that occurred from white, male citizens and politicians. These events, whether it is the civil war, the reconstruction period, World War I, or other well-known American historical events, white males are mainly centered around the story. Due to this narrow focus, the other genders and races that were affected or affiliated with these events are often neglected. 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